Visualizing anatomy and physiology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Contents in Brief......Page 22
Contents......Page 24
1 Organization of the Human Body......Page 36
Body Structure Is Closely Linked to Function at All Levels of Organization......Page 38
Every Body System Performs Vital Functions......Page 39
Life Processes Include Every Function Necessary to Sustain Life......Page 42
Homeostatic Balance Maintains Relatively Stable Conditions Inside the Body......Page 44
The Body Can Be Divided into Specific Anatomical Regions......Page 46
Directional Terms Describe the Location of Body Parts Relative to Each Other......Page 47
Body Cavities Contain Organs and Other Anatomical Structures......Page 48
WHAT A HEALTH PROvIDER SEES: Medical Imaging......Page 51
2 Introductory Chemistry......Page 56
Matter Is Different from Energy......Page 58
Matter Is Made of Chemical Elements......Page 59
Elements Are Made of Atoms......Page 60
Atoms Combine to Form Compounds: Ionic and Covalent......Page 62
Water, Acids, and Bases Make Up a Major Part of Body Fluids......Page 67
Carbohydrates Are Major Energy Sources for the Body......Page 70
Proteins Have Many Functions......Page 72
Enzymes Speed Up Chemical Reactions......Page 75
Nucleic Acids Carry Genetic Instructions......Page 76
3 Cells and Tissues......Page 84
Cells Have Distinct Parts......Page 86
The Plasma Membrane Is the Cell’s Gatekeeper......Page 88
The Cytoplasm Contains Many Organelles......Page 89
The Nucleus Controls the Cell’s Activities......Page 92
Membranes Transport Substances......Page 93
Proteins Are Made in a Complex Process......Page 100
Cells Divide by Mitosis or by Meiosis......Page 103
Cells Specialize into Various Tissues......Page 107
Epithelial Tissue Covers Body Surfaces......Page 108
Connective Tissue Protects and Supports the Body and Its Organs......Page 112
Nervous Tissue Transmits Impulses to Coordinate Activities......Page 117
Membranes Cover or Line Parts of the Body......Page 118
Aging Affects Cells and Tissues......Page 120
4 The Integumentary System......Page 126
There Are Many Components of the Integumentary System......Page 128
Skin Is a Multilayered Organ......Page 129
Skin Color Is Caused by Pigments......Page 131
Hair Protects the Skin and Other Structures of the Body......Page 132
Glands Produce Secretions That Perform a Variety of Functions......Page 134
Nails Are Composed of Keratinized Dead Cells......Page 135
The Skin Plays a Number of Roles in the Body......Page 136
WHAT A HEAlTH PROVIDER SEES: Skin Grafts and Artificial Skin......Page 140
Skin Cancers Can Develop from Repeated Exposure to UV Radiation......Page 141
5 The Skeletal System......Page 148
A Bone’s Structure Determines Its Function......Page 150
Bone Is Formed During Ossification and Maintained by Remodeling......Page 153
Bones Repair After Fracture by a Four-stage Process......Page 156
The Axial Skeleton Is Composed of 80 Bones......Page 158
The Head Is Formed by the Skull and Hyoid Bones......Page 159
The Skull Has Many Unique Features......Page 162
The Vertebral Column Contains 26 Vertebrae......Page 163
Bones of the Upper Body Form the Thorax and Arms......Page 166
The Ribs and Sternum Form the Framework for the Thorax......Page 167
Coxal Bones and Sacrum Form Walls of the Pelvis......Page 168
Foot Structure Helps Disperse Body Weight and Absorb Shock......Page 169
Synovial Joints Have Complex Structures......Page 172
Freely Movable Joints Are Capable of Various Motions......Page 174
Synovial Joints Are Classified by Type of Movement......Page 176
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Knee Injuries......Page 179
Bone Mass Decreases As You Get Older......Page 180
Arthritis Develops In Joints Due to Wear and Tear......Page 181
6 The Muscular System......Page 188
Skeletal Muscle Tissue Is Attached to the Bones......Page 190
Smooth Muscle Tissue Is Found in Most Body Organs......Page 191
Muscles Are Built to Move......Page 192
Muscles Are Composed of Bundles of Muscle Fibers......Page 193
The Sliding Filament Theory Explains Muscle Contraction......Page 194
Nerve Signals Initiate the Contraction of Skeletal Muscle......Page 196
Muscle Contraction Comes in Many Forms: Twitch, Tetanus, Isotonic, and Isometric......Page 199
Smooth Muscle Tissue Looks Very Different from Skeletal Muscle......Page 201
Smooth Muscle Tissue Comes in Two Varieties: Visceral and Multi-Unit......Page 202
Cardiac Muscle Tissue Forms the Muscular Wall of the Heart......Page 203
Skeletal Muscles Work in Groups......Page 204
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Exercise Maintains Healthy Muscles......Page 205
Muscles of the Head and Neck Control Facial Expressions, Allow You to Speak and Chew, and Enable Your Eyes to Open, Close, and Move......Page 209
Muscles of the Thorax, Abdomen, Neck, and Back Perform Many Functions......Page 211
Muscles of the Shoulder and Upper Limb Are Concerned with Movement......Page 215
Muscles of the Lower Body Move the Thigh and Legs......Page 218
7 The Nervous System......Page 226
The Nervous System Has Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Functions......Page 228
Neurons Are Electrically Excitable Cells Designed for Transmitting Information......Page 231
Neuroglia Protect Neurons and Help Them Do Their Jobs......Page 232
Action Potentials Help Propagate Nerve Impulses Along the Nerve Fiber......Page 233
Synapses Help Neurons Communicate with Other Cells......Page 234
The Central Nervous System Requires Protection......Page 236
The Brain Is Composed of Many Different Parts......Page 238
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Alzheimer Disease......Page 240
The Spinal Cord Helps the Brain Communicate with the Environment......Page 242
The ANS Uses a Two-Neuron Pathway to Communicate with the Effectors......Page 244
The Sympathetic Division of the ANS: Fight-or-Flight Responses......Page 246
The Parasympathetic Division of the ANS: A Rest-and-Digest Response......Page 249
The Peripheral Nervous System Communicates with the Outside World......Page 250
Cranial Nerves Originate from Brain Tissue......Page 251
Spinal Nerves Contain Both Sensory and Motor Fibers That Supply a Specific Area of the Body......Page 252
Reflex Arcs Allow Automatic Responses to a Stimulus......Page 254
8 Somatic Senses and Special Senses......Page 262
Somatic Senses Are Related to Detection of Pressure, Chemicals, Proprioception, and Touch......Page 264
Receptors Help Monitor the Internal and External Environments......Page 265
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Pain Management......Page 267
Receptors for Olfaction Lie Within the Nasal Cavity......Page 268
Gustation Involves Receptors from Both the Oral and Nasal Cavities......Page 270
Accessory Structures Protect the Eyeball and Muscles Allow It to Move......Page 271
The Eyeball Is Composed of Three Structural Layers......Page 272
Light Is Focused Using Refraction and Accommodation......Page 274
Signals Travel from the Eye to the Brain......Page 276
The Ear Is Composed of Three Distinct Regions......Page 277
Receptors for Hearing Are Found in the Cochlea......Page 279
Equilibrium Comes in Two Varieties: Static and Dynamic......Page 280
9 The Endocrine System......Page 288
The Endocrine System Has Many Components......Page 290
Steroid Hormones Go Directly into the Target Cell......Page 291
Nonsteroid Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Target Cell Membrane......Page 292
Endocrine Glands Regulate Key Body Functions......Page 293
The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus Control Many Endocrine Glands......Page 294
The Thyroid Gland Regulates Metabolism......Page 298
Parathyroid Glands Regulate Calcium Levels......Page 300
Pancreatic Endocrine Cells Regulate Blood Sugar Levels......Page 302
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Gestational Diabetes......Page 304
Adrenal Glands Regulate Many Functions......Page 305
The Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Gonads Regulate Reproduction......Page 308
The Pineal Gland Sets Daily Cycles......Page 310
The Stress Response Has Three Stages......Page 311
Several Organs and Hormones Are Involved in the Stress Response......Page 313
Aging Alters the Endocrine System......Page 314
10 The Cardiovascular System: Blood......Page 322
Formed Elements Consist of the Many Types of Blood Cells......Page 324
All the Formed Elements Develop from Red Bone Marrow Stem Cells......Page 327
When Blood Cells Are Destroyed, Many of Their Components Are Recycled......Page 328
Fibrinolysis Creates Space for the Final Repair of a Damaged Vessel......Page 330
ABO and Rh Blood Groups Are Important in Determining Blood Compatibility......Page 332
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Artificial Blood......Page 334
Blood for Testing Can Be Obtained in Several Ways......Page 335
Blood Tests Are Often Used to Diagnose Disease......Page 336
11 The Cardiovascular System: Heart, Blood Vessels, and Circulation......Page 344
The Heart Pumps Blood Through Blood Vessels to All Tissues......Page 346
The Heart Is Located in the Thoracic Cavity......Page 347
Valves Keep the Blood Flowing the Right Direction Through the Heart......Page 348
Blood Flows Through the Heart Because of Pressure Gradients......Page 350
Electrical Signals Control Heart Rate......Page 351
The Cardiac Cycle Alternates Between Systole and Diastole......Page 352
Many Factors Affect Cardiac Output......Page 354
What Can Go Wrong with Blood Flow Through the Heart?......Page 355
Blood Vessels Are the Body’s Plumbing......Page 356
Arteries and Arterioles Are Thick-Walled Vessels......Page 357
Capillaries Are Thin Exchangers Between Blood and Tissues......Page 360
Veins and Venules Are Thin-Walled Blood Collectors......Page 362
The Pulmonary and Hepatic Portal Circulations Are Somewhat Different......Page 366
Many Factors Influence Blood Pressure......Page 368
Blood Pressure Is Closely Regulated......Page 370
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Shock......Page 371
12 The Lymphatic System and Immunity......Page 378
The Lymphatic System Consists of Lymph, Lymphatic Vessels, and Several Structures and Organs......Page 380
Immune Reactions Occur in the Lymph Nodes, Spleen, and Lymphatic Nodules......Page 384
Immune Reponses Help Protect the Body Against Disease......Page 386
Innate Immunity Includes Two Levels of Nonspecific Defense......Page 387
Adaptive Immunity Allows You to Respond to a Variety of Invaders......Page 390
Immune Response Time Speeds Up After the Initial Exposure......Page 395
There Are Many Ways to Develop Immunity......Page 396
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: When Your Own Immune System Attacks You......Page 397
The Symptoms of HIV Infection Progress in Severity......Page 398
13 The Respiratory System......Page 406
Respiratory Organs Move Air and Exchange Gases......Page 408
The Respiratory Organs Are Functionally Divided into Upper and Lower Respiratory Tracts......Page 409
The Respiratory System Performs Two Important Processes: Breathing and Respiration......Page 411
Breathing Involves Changes in Pressures and Volumes......Page 412
Muscles Contract and Relax to Move Air into and out of the Lungs During Ventilation......Page 413
Respiratory Health Is Sometimes Tested Using a Spirometer......Page 414
Special Terms Are Used to Describe Breathing Patterns......Page 416
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)......Page 417
Oxygen Is Transported Through the Blood Attached to Hemoglobin......Page 418
Most Carbon Dioxide Must Be Converted to Bicarbonate to Be Moved to the Lungs......Page 420
Structures of the Brainstem Regulate Breathing......Page 422
The Breathing Control Centers Are Influenced by Many Factors......Page 424
Respiratory Actions Change with Physical Activity......Page 426
Smoking Can Damage Lung Tissue......Page 427
14 The Digestive System, Nutrition, and Metabolism......Page 434
Let’s Journey Through the Digestive System......Page 436
The GI Tract Is Supported by the Peritoneum, and Each of Its Sections Has Four Layers......Page 438
Digestion Begins in the Mouth......Page 440
Swallowing Involves Voluntary and Involuntary Stages......Page 441
The Stomach Begins Digestion in Earnest......Page 442
The Small Intestine Is the Site of Most Digestion and Absorption......Page 444
The Large Intestine Absorbs Water and Eliminates Wastes......Page 448
The Three Phases of Digestion Are Controlled by the Enteric Nervous System......Page 450
Your Diet Contains Many Nutrients......Page 452
Cellular Respiration Creates ATP......Page 454
Lipids Are Broken Down into Intermediates of Cellular Respiration......Page 456
Hormones and Chemical Levels Regulate Metabolic Activities......Page 457
Diabetes Is Like Prolonged Starvation......Page 458
Obesity Is an Imbalance Between Energy Intake and Energy Expenditure......Page 460
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Dieting and Weight Loss......Page 462
The Heat from Metabolism Must Be Regulated......Page 463
15 The Urinary System and Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–Base Balance......Page 472
The Kidneys Do the Major Work of the Urinary System......Page 474
The Kidney Is a Complex Filter......Page 476
Urine Formation Involves Three Processes and Helps Maintain the Blood’s Volume and Composition......Page 480
Glomerular Filtration Moves a Large Amount of Fluid into the Glomerular Capsule......Page 482
Reabsorption and Secretion Occur Along the Length of the Renal Tubule......Page 483
The Nephron Loop Contributes to Water Conservation in the Body......Page 484
The Urinary Bladder Is a Temporary Storage Area......Page 486
Urethral Structure Varies Between the Sexes......Page 487
Urination Is a Spinal Reflex......Page 488
The Kidneys Regulate the Composition of Body Fluids......Page 489
Fluid Balance Depends Primarily on Electrolyte Balance......Page 490
Water Regulation Involves a Balance of Intake and Loss......Page 491
Water Levels Also Depend on Changes in NaCl Levels......Page 492
Buffers Help to Maintain pH Levels Within a Narrow Range......Page 494
Large Changes in pH May Result in Acidosis or Alkalosis......Page 496
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: Renal Failure and Dialysis......Page 498
16 The Reproductive Systems......Page 504
Male Reproductive Organs Make and Deliver Sperm......Page 506
Sperm Production Begins During Puberty and Continues Throughout Life......Page 508
Female Reproductive Organs Provide the Site of Fertilization and Nurture the Developing Embryo......Page 512
Oogenesis Begins Before Birth......Page 516
The Female Reproductive Cycle Has Several Phases......Page 518
Fertilization Must Occur While Both the Egg and Sperm Are Still Viable......Page 520
Contraceptive Methods Interrupt Different Stages of the Fertilization Process......Page 521
WHAT A HEALTH PROVIDER SEES: The Male Birth Control Pill......Page 523
During the Embryonic Phase, the Embryo Changes from a Single Cell to a Differentiated Organism......Page 524
Embryonic Germ Layers Differentiate to Form the Various Body Components......Page 526
The Fetal Period Is Devoted to Growth and Refinement of Body Structures......Page 528
Hormones Are Important for Maintaining the Pregnancy......Page 532
Labor Has Several Stages......Page 534
Lactation Provides Food for the Newborn......Page 536
Aging Alters Reproductive Capacity......Page 538
Appendix A: PeriodicTable......Page 547
Appendix B: Measurements......Page 548
Appendix C: AnswerstoSelfTest......Page 550
Glossary......Page 551
Line Art Credits......Page 590
Photo Credits......Page 591
Index......Page 593