Omega 3 fatty acids in brain and neurological health

Front Cover......Page 1
Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Brain and Neurological Health......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
List of Contributors......Page 14
Acknowledgments......Page 18
 Longevity......Page 20
 Smoking and Reduced Longevity......Page 21
 Genetic Diseases and Longevity......Page 22
 Environmental Factors and Longevity......Page 23
 Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Longevity......Page 24
 References......Page 25
 Further Reading......Page 26
  Homeostasis Versus Homeodynamics......Page 28
  Free Radical Theory of Aging......Page 29
 Genetics, Post-Genetics, and Epigenetics of Aging......Page 30
  Gene Therapy......Page 31
 Hormetics, Hormesis, and Hormetins......Page 33
 References......Page 34
  Ether Lipid Synthesis......Page 38
  β-oxidation......Page 39
 Peroxisomal Pathologies......Page 42
  X-linked Adrenoleukodystrophy......Page 43
 Therapeutic Strategies......Page 44
  Fatty Acids and Dietary Intervention......Page 45
 Demyelination and Other Leukodystrophies......Page 46
 References......Page 47
 Introduction......Page 50
  Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acids......Page 51
  Isofurans......Page 52
   Lipid Peroxidation-Derived Short-Chain Aldehydes......Page 53
  Lipid Peroxidation Products from Cholesterol......Page 54
 Neurological Dysfunction Associated with Lipid Peroxidation......Page 56
  Parkinson’s Disease......Page 57
  Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis......Page 60
  Down Syndrome......Page 61
   Therapeutic Intervention with Antioxidants for Neurological Dysfunction......Page 62
 References......Page 63
 Additional References......Page 70
 Obesity and Cognitive Impairment......Page 76
 Western Diet Intake and Cognitive Impairment......Page 77
  Western Diet Intake and Cognitive Impairment: Underlying Neuroendocrine Mechanisms......Page 78
 References......Page 80
 Risk Factors for Diabetic Neuropathy and pathophysiological Mechanisms......Page 82
 Genetic Risk Factors for Diabetic Neuropathy......Page 83
 Potential Use of Genetic Risk Factors in Clinical Practice......Page 85
 References......Page 86
 Overview......Page 88
 DHA in the Brain......Page 89
 EPA-Derived Lipid Mediators in the Brain......Page 90
  DHA-derived Protectins and Neuroprotectins......Page 92
  Effect of EPA and DHA in Neurological Disorders......Page 95
 References......Page 97
 Assessment of QoL......Page 100
  Evidence from Observational Studies......Page 101
 Discussion......Page 102
 References......Page 103
  Primary Fatty Acid Amides......Page 106
  N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs)......Page 109
  N-Acyl Amino Acids (NAAs)......Page 112
   NAGs, a Specific Class of the NAAs......Page 113
  N-Acyl Taurines, a Specific Class of the NAAs......Page 116
   Other N-Acyl Amino Acids......Page 117
 The Relevance of the Fatty Acid Amides to Neurological Disease......Page 118
 References......Page 121
 Nutrition and the Impact of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Brain Development......Page 128
 The Development of Visual Topographical Maps......Page 131
 Critical Periods for Brain Development......Page 132
 Role of Omega-3 on Development of Central Visual Connections......Page 133
 References......Page 136
 The Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Neurotransmission......Page 140
  Postpartum Depression......Page 141
   Infancy......Page 142
  Childhood Developmental Disorders......Page 143
   Childhood Depression......Page 144
 Conclusion......Page 145
 References......Page 146
 Introduction......Page 150
  Blood–Brain Barrier......Page 151
  Fatty Acid Binding Protein......Page 152
  Dietary Lipids......Page 153
   DHA......Page 154
   Metabolites Derived from Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 155
  Prostaglandins......Page 157
  Platelet-Activating Factor......Page 159
 Future Prospects......Page 160
 References......Page 161
 Effects of Aging on Incorporation of Docosahexaenoic Acid in Brain Phospholipids......Page 166
 Effects of Aging on DHA Biosynthesis......Page 167
  DHA is Involved in Learning and Memory......Page 168
  Animal Studies......Page 169
  Human Studies......Page 171
 DHA Improves Synaptic Plasticity During Aging: Involvement of Retinoid X Receptors and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Re.........Page 172
 Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 174
 References......Page 176
 Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 182
   Omega-3 to Omega-6 Ratio......Page 183
 Status of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Clinical Depression......Page 184
   Antioxidants......Page 185
 Neurological Alterations in Depression......Page 186
  Omega-3 Fatty Acids Affect Cell Membrane Integrity and Fluidity......Page 188
 Impact of Diet on AHN......Page 189
 Clinical Trials Supporting the Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in MDD......Page 190
 Probable Mode of Action of Flax Seed Oil in Depression......Page 192
 Conclusion......Page 194
 References......Page 195
 Further Reading......Page 198
 Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 200
  Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Depression......Page 201
  Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Depression with Diabetes......Page 202
  Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Anxiety and Depression in Students......Page 203
 References......Page 204
 A review of the Literature......Page 206
  Findings......Page 207
    Omega 3......Page 209
    Omega-3 and Omega-6......Page 210
    Combination of Essential Fatty Acids and other Supplements......Page 211
 Conclusion......Page 212
 References......Page 217
 Further Reading......Page 218
 Introduction......Page 220
   Macro-Structural Changes......Page 221
   Serotonin......Page 222
   Changes in Memory......Page 223
  Fatty Acid Basics: An Introduction to the Biochemistry of Fatty Acids......Page 224
   Neurogenesis......Page 225
   Lowering of Thrombosis......Page 226
 Omega Fatty Acid Metabolism......Page 227
    Structural Differences from Normal Aging......Page 228
   Disease Mechanisms......Page 229
  Mixed Dementia......Page 230
 Protective Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids against Dementia......Page 231
 References......Page 232
 Further Reading......Page 238
 Vascularization of the Brain......Page 240
 Effects of a High Fat Diet and Obesity on Overall Health and Proposed Mechanisms......Page 241
  Clinical Studies: Vascular Changes Due to a High Fat Diet and Obesity......Page 242
  Animal Studies: Vascular Changes Due to a High Fat Diet and Obesity......Page 243
 Conclusion......Page 245
 References......Page 246
 Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 250
  DHA Deficiency and Neurological Function Affected by Diabetes in Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 251
  Animal Models, Diabetes, and Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 252
  Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Prevention and Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 253
 References......Page 254
 Importance of Essential Fatty Acids as Neuroprotectors During Brain Development and Aging......Page 256
 Substantia Nigra Vulnerability to Neurodegeneration......Page 257
 Substantia Nigra Dopamine Cell Populations Display Differential Vulnerability to Lesions......Page 258
 Repercussion of EFA Deficiency or Supplementation on Midbrain Dopaminergic Systems......Page 259
 Potential Mechanisms Involved in Substantia Nigra Dopamine Cell Loss Induced by EFA Dietary Restriction......Page 260
 References......Page 264
 Further Reading......Page 268
 Introduction......Page 270
 Measurement of Neurogenesis (Markers of Proliferation)......Page 271
 Developmental Neurogenesis......Page 272
  Mechanisms of Action......Page 273
 References......Page 278
  Incorporation of Circulating PUFAs into Brain Membrane Lipids......Page 284
  Methods and models for determining PUFA incorporation into brain......Page 286
   Brain Tumor Imaging......Page 287
  Neurotransmission......Page 288
   Human Mutations and Mouse Knockouts of iPLA2β......Page 289
   Upregulated Incorporation Coefficients in Chronic Alcoholics......Page 290
 Summary and Conclusions......Page 291
 References......Page 292
 Epidemiological Relationship Between Migraine and Obesity......Page 296
  Comorbidity......Page 297
 Proposed Mechanism for the Relationship Between Obesity and Migraine......Page 298
  Lifestyle Factors......Page 299
 Influence of Weight Loss on Chronic Headache in Obese People and Effects of the Preventive Treatment of Migraine on Weight .........Page 300
 References......Page 302
 Introduction......Page 306
 ALA Supplementation and Brain Fatty Acid Composition......Page 307
 Long-chain Omega-3 PUFA Supplementation and Brain Fatty Acid Composition......Page 310
 Conclusions......Page 316
 References......Page 320
  Infants and Children......Page 322
  Maternal Supplementation......Page 323
  Supplementation During Infancy......Page 326
  Supplementation During Childhood......Page 328
  Young Adults......Page 330
 Epidemiological Studies: The Association Between Omega-3 PUFA Intake, Omega-3 PUFA Levels, and Cognitive Decline......Page 333
  RCTs: Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment or Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 338
 References......Page 341
   P-Element-Mediated Mutagenesis......Page 346
   UAS-GAL4-Based Gene Expression System......Page 347
  Representative Drosophila Models for Neurodegenerative Diseases......Page 348
  Effects of PUFA and Cholesterol Levels on Drosophila AD Models Expressing Human Aβ42......Page 349
  Drosophila Mutant of Very Long-Chain Acyl Coenzyme a Synthetase and Glyceryl Trioleate Oil......Page 351
  Lipids, TRP Channels, and Neurodegeneration in Drosophila......Page 352
 Perspective......Page 353
 References......Page 354
 OSAHS......Page 356
  Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids......Page 357
  PUFAs and Health......Page 358
  Link Between PUFAs and Depression in OSAHS......Page 359
  Link Between PUFAs and Sleep Quality in OSAHS......Page 361
 References......Page 364
 Further Reading......Page 366
 Background......Page 368
  Adrenoleukodystrophy and Adrenomyeloneuropathy......Page 369
  Fatty Acid, Lipid, and Cholesterol Levels......Page 370
 Plasma Lipids in Schizophrenia and the Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 371
 Plasma Lipids in Depressive Illness and Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 372
 Plasma Lipids in Autism and Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 373
 Conclusions......Page 374
 References......Page 375
 First Trial of Omega-3 PUFAs and Aggression in Young Adults......Page 378
  Effect of Omega-3 PUFAs on Aggression in the Elderly......Page 379
   Serotonin......Page 380
 Conclusion......Page 381
 References......Page 383
 Overview......Page 386
 Cellular Level of Multiple Sclerosis......Page 387
 Varying Results Amongst Researchers......Page 388
 Summary......Page 389
 References......Page 390
 PUFAs in Mitochondrial Membranes and Oxidative Stress......Page 392
 Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress, and PD......Page 394
 Isotope Protection of PUFAS Against autoxidation......Page 395
 Isotope Reinforcement of PUFA in Pre-Clinical PD Modeling......Page 397
 Conclusion......Page 399
 References......Page 400
 Weight-Related Variables and Dementia......Page 404
  Prospective Studies with a Focus on Dementia......Page 406
  Prospective Studies Focusing on Cognitive Functioning......Page 407
 Weight and Cognitive Function: Role of CVD Factors......Page 408
  Controls and Potential Mediators......Page 409
 MetS......Page 410
 Mechanisms: General......Page 411
 Early Influences on Relations between Obesity and Cognition......Page 412
 Morbid Obesity and Clinically Important Cognitive Deficit......Page 413
 Treatment of Overweight and Obesity......Page 414
 Treatment of Obesity with Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 415
  Measurement of Cognitive Function......Page 416
 Final Summary and Conclusions......Page 417
 References......Page 418
 Review of the Literature......Page 422
  Summary of These Study Findings......Page 424
   Cross-Sectional Studies......Page 428
  Limitations of this Literature......Page 429
   Mechanisms of Action......Page 430
  Epidemiological and Clinical Significance......Page 431
 References......Page 432
 Introduction......Page 436
  Equipment......Page 437
  Gait Analysis......Page 438
   Quantification of Functional Limitation......Page 440
   Quantification of the Effects of Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment......Page 443
 References......Page 444
 Further Reading......Page 446
  SFAs, Memory, and the Hippocampus – Evidence from Animal Models......Page 448
    Oxidative Stress......Page 449
  SFAs, Memory, and the Hippocampus – Human Data......Page 450
  Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Memory, and the Hippocampus – Evidence from Animal Studies......Page 451
   Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Depression......Page 452
   Conclusion on Human Data......Page 453
  Putative Causal Basis for Link between SFAs and AD......Page 454
   Matched Group Studies......Page 455
    Dementia Diagnosis and Self-Report Measures of Dietary Intake......Page 456
   Prevention and Treatment Studies......Page 457
  Omega-3 Fatty Acids, AD, and Memory Impairment – Evidence from Animal Models......Page 458
 General Discussion......Page 459
 References......Page 460
 Further Reading......Page 464
 Mercury......Page 466
 Selenium......Page 468
 Arsenic......Page 469
 PCBs......Page 470
 Dieldrin......Page 471
 References......Page 472
 Oxidation Indicators......Page 474
  Prevention of Oxidation and Oxidative Stability......Page 476
 Oxidation Correction......Page 477
 References......Page 478
 Further Reading......Page 479
Index......Page 480