Handbook of Microalgae-Based Processes and Products: Fundamentals and Advances in Energy, Food, Feed, Fertilizer, and Bioactive Compounds

Cover
Handbook of Microalgae-Based
Processes and Products:
Fundamentals and Advances in Energy, Food,
Feed, Fertilizer, and Bioactive Compounds
Copyright
Dedication
Contributors
Foreword by Michael A. Borowitzka
Part 1: Fundamentals
1 Microalgae biotechnology: A brief introduction
	Introduction
	A brief history of everything
	Algae as human food
		Microalgae and seafood
	Nitrogen for sustainable agriculture
	Potential biofuels and other organic chemicals
	Carbon sequestration by microalgae
	Algae-based treatment of wastewaters
	Harmful algae
	Commercial production and processing of microalgal biomass
	Concluding remarks
	References
2
Morphophysiological, structural, and metabolic aspects of microalgae
	Introduction
	Morphological aspects of microalgae
	Cell ultrastructure of microalgae
		Prokaryotic cells
		Eukaryotic cells
	General considerations on microalgae
		Prokaryotic microalgae (cyanobacteria)
		Eukaryotic microalgae
			The green algae (Chlorophyta/Charophyta)
			Euglenophyta
			Haptophyta
			Dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae)
			The diatoms (Bacillariophyceae)
			Eustigmatophyceae
			The red algae (Rhodophyta)
	Metabolic aspects of microalgae
		Photosynthetic metabolism
			Photosynthetic pigments
				Chlorophyll
				Carotenoids
				Phycobiliproteins
			Photosynthesis
			Respiration
			Nitrogen fixation
	Concluding remarks
	References
3
Microalgae culture collections, strain maintenance, and propagation
	Living biological collections
	The operation of microalgae culture collections
		Basic laboratory infrastructure
		Identification of cultures
		Propagation of cultures
		Conditions of keeping microalgae in culture collections
		Strain quality control and routine problems
		Cryopreservation of microalgae in culture collections
		Microalgae as models of organisms in genomics, proteomics, and GMO studies-The role of culture collections
	Some microalgae culture collections across the world
	Concluding remarks
	References
4
Synthetic biology applied to microalgae-based processes and products
	Introduction
		Aspects of synthetic biology
	Feasibility of microalgae for synthetic biology to produce various products
		Biofuels
		Various other bioactive products
	Challenges to developing microalgae as a chassis for synthetic biology
	Future perspective
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Part 2: Microalgae-Based Processes
5
Photobioreactor design
	Chemical reactors versus photobioreactors
		The chemical reactor
		The photobioreactor
	Kinetics of photo-biosynthesis
		P-I charts
		Other kinetic models
		PSF
	Fluid dynamics relevance
		The effects of fluid dynamics on photosynthesis
		Photosynthesis and ordered mixing
	Ingenuity and inventiveness
	Advanced models
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
6
Microalgae production systems
	Introduction
	Major factors on microalgae production
		Microalgae requirements
			Light
			Temperature
			pH/CO2
			Dissolved oxygen
			Overall growth model
		Photobioreactor capacity
			Geometry
			Fluid-dynamic
			Mass transfer
			Heat transfer
	Photobioreactor types
		Raceway reactors
		Tubular reactors
		Other designs
			Flat panels
		Thin-layer reactors
	Future trends
	References
7
Wastewater treatment based in microalgae
	Introduction
	Wastewater treatment
	Microalgae for WW treatment
		Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus
		Heavy metal removal
		Elimination of colorants
		Elimination of emerging pollutants
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
8
Carbon dioxide capture and utilization using microalgae
	Introduction
	Photosynthesis and carbon dioxide fixation by microalgae
		The light reactions of photosynthesis
		CO2 fixation: The Calvin-Benson cycle and the CO2 concentrating mechanism
	Cultivation systems for CO2 capture using microalgae
		CO2 sources and physicochemical properties
		Strains
		Physicochemical aspects involved in CO2 capture by microalgae
			Light and nutrients
			Temperature
			pH
			Mixing
		Culture systems for CO2 capture with microalgae
		Carbon balances for evaluation of microalgae-based CO2 capture systems
			Gaseous carbon
			Dissolved carbon
			Carbon in biomass
	Strategies for CO2 capture improvement
		Genetic engineering and metabolic modifications for the improvement of CO2 capture
		Photobioreactors: Enhancing design for CO2 capture improvement
			Increasing mass transfer and reactor configurations
				Manipulation of bubble dynamics
				Modifying the liquid medium: Alkalinization and addition of adsorbent/absorbent materials
				Built-in materials for photobioreactors
				Hybrid photobioreactors
				Other bioreactor configurations
	Remarks and conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
9
Dewatering and drying of algal cultures
	Introduction
	Historic timeline of algal biomass production
	Conventional dewatering methods of algae processing
		Flocculation
		Centrifugation
		Filtration
		Gravity sedimentation
		Flotation
		Electrophoresis methods
	Conventional drying methods for algae processing
		Solar drying
		Convective drying
		Spray-drying
		Freeze-drying
		Other drying methods
	Latest trends in dewatering and drying of algae for commercialization
	Future perspective
	Conclusion
	References
10
Microalgae harvesting techniques
	Introduction
	Challenges in microalgal biomass harvesting
	Effective harvesting techniques for microalgal biomass recovery
	Harvesting methods
		Gravity sedimentation
		Flocculation
			Autoflocculation
			Chemical flocculation
			Bioflocculation
			Physical flocculation
		Flotation
			Dissolved air flotation
			Dispersed air flotation
			Electrolytic flotation
			Dispersed ozone flotation
		Centrifugation
		Filtration methods
	Selection of the most appropriate harvesting technique
	Research needs
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
11
Extraction of biomolecules from microalgae
	Introduction
	Extraction approaches for carotenoids
		Cell disruption
			Mechanical methods
				Bead milling
				High-pressure homogenization
				Ultrasonication
				Microwave
			Nonmechanical disruption methods
				Acid, alkali, osmotic shock, and ionic liquids
				Enzyme-based approaches
		Extraction methods
			Organic solvent extraction
			Supercritical fluid extraction
		Purification
	Biofuels production
		Biodiesel
			Lipid extraction
				Organic solvent
				Ionic liquids
				Supercritical fluid extraction
			Transesterification
		Bioethanol
			Pretreatment
			Hydrolysis and fermentation
		Bio-crude oil
			Pyrolysis
			HTL
	Future perspectives and conclusions
	Acknowledgment
Part 3: Microalgae-Based Products
12
Biogas from microalgae
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	Anaerobic digestion of microalgae
	Bacteria and archaea in the AD of microalgae
	Main drawbacks affecting AD of microalgae
		Complex cell walls
		Low C/N ratios
		Humidity of microalgal biomass
		Salinity
	AD of spent microalgae
	Nutrient and CO2 recycling: Toward a sustainable closed loop
	Biorefinery concept
	Conclusions
13
Biodiesel from microalgae
	Introduction
	Strains of microalgae for biodiesel production
		Lipid-rich microalgae as a biodiesel feedstock
		Cultivation of high lipid bearing microalgae
		Process parameters affecting microalgae cultivation
		Practical techniques for stimulating lipid production in microalgae
			Nutrient starvation
			Temperature stress
			Salinity induction
			Stress of pH
			Stress of heavy metals
			Light irradiation stress
			UV irradiance
		Genetically engineered strains of microalgae for biodiesel production
	Microalgae preparation for biodiesel production
		Harvesting microalgae
			Chemical flocculation
			Physical separation
			Ultrasonic sedimentation
		Drying microalgae
		Lipid extraction
	Microalgal biodiesel production
		Transesterification of microalgal lipids
		Supercritical alcohol transesterification for algal biodiesel production
		Process parameters of in situ supercritical transesterification of microalgal lipids
			Chemical composition of microalgal lipids
			Processing parameters
			Effect of water and FFAs in feedstock
	Summary and perspectives
14
Bioethanol production from microalgae
	Introduction
	Microalgae
	Bioethanol
	Bioethanol production from microalgal biomass
		Microalgae cultivation
		Harvesting and drying
		Pretreatments and saccharification
		Fermentation and distillation
	Conclusion
15
Biohydrogen from microalgae
	Introduction
	Pathways of hydrogen production from microalgae
		Biophotolysis
			Direct biophotolysis
			Indirect biophotolysis
			Enzymes involved in photobiological hydrogen production from microalgae
				[Fe-Fe] hydrogenase
				[Ni-Fe] bidirectional hydrogenase
				[Ni-Fe] uptake hydrogenase
				Nitrogenase
			Factors influencing photobiological hydrogen production from microalgae
				pH
				Temperature
				Light intensity
				Nutrient media
		Biohydrogen production using microalgal biomass as a feedstock in dark fermentation
			Dark fermentation process
			Microalgal biomass as a feedstock
			Pretreatment of microalgal biomass for hydrogen production
	Challenges and future perspectives of biohydrogen production from microalgae
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
16
Microalgae single cell oil
	Introduction
		Term definition
		A brief history of MSCO development
	Microalgae regarded as MSCOPS, their major fatty acid compositions and potential applications
		Potential application of MSCO as biofuel feedstock
		Potential application of MSCO in PUFA production
	Biosynthetic pathway for MSCO biosynthesis and its regulation
		Biosynthetic pathway for MSCO biosynthesis
		Regulation of fatty acid biosynthetic pathway for improved MSCO production by manipulating the environmental stre ...
	Cultivation system of microalgae for MSCO production
	Current market, challenges, and future prospects of MSCO
	Conclusions
17
Microalgal bio-fertilizers
	Introduction
	Microalgae as bio-fertilizer
		Nitrogen fixation
		Improving availability of phosphorus
		Improving physical properties of soil
		Reclamation of saline soil
		Plant growth promoters
	Microalgae-based bio-fertilizer
		Cultivation
			Open ponds and high-rate algal ponds (HRAP)
			Closed photo-bioreactors (PBRs)
		Harvesting
			Bulk harvesting
			Thickening
		Biomass valorization
	Microalgae cultivation in wastewater
	Integration of microalgae biomass production with wastewater treatment
	Conclusions
	References
18
Pigments from microalgae
	Introduction
	Industrial application of microalgal pigments
		Pharmaceutical use and prospecting
		Food and nutraceuticals
		Feed
		Other applications
	Pigments bioprocesses
		Phycocyanin
		β-Carotene
		Astaxanthin
		Lutein
	Economical interest and challenges
		Market size
		Constraints
		Prospects and solutions
	Acknowledgments
	References
19
Nutritional quality and bioactive properties of proteins and peptides from microalgae
	Introduction
	Microalgae proteins
		Microalgae protein extraction
			Microalgae cell lysis
	Bioactive peptides from microalgae
	Nutritional quality of microalgae proteins
		Microalgae amino acid profile
		Digestibility of microalgae proteins
		Protein utilization parameters
	Challenges and opportunities
	References
20
Bioactive polysaccharides from microalgae
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	Structural diversity of polysaccharides from microalgae
	Processes production, extraction, and purification of EPS from microalgae and cyanobacteria
	Polysaccharides from microalgae as antiinfectious agents
		Antiviral activity of PS from microalgae and cyanobacteria
		Antibacterial activity of PS from microalgae and cyanobacteria
		Antifungal activities of PS from microalgae and cyanobacteria
	Bioactivity and structure-activity relationships
		Antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging
		Anticancer activity
		Immunomodulatory activity
		Antiinflammatory activity
		Anticoagulant activity
		Antitussive activity
		Antilipidemic and antiglycemic activities
		Antiaging activity
	Future perspectives
	References
21
Sterols from microalgae
	Introduction
	Structural aspects of sterols
	Sterol biosynthesis
	Sterols
	Sterols in cyanobacteria
	Environmental influence on microalgae sterols production
	Sterols analysis
	Bioactivity of sterols
	Industrial sterol production
	Conclusion
	References
22
``Bioplastics from microalgae´´-Polyhydroxyalkanoate production by cyanobacteria
	Introduction
	Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) biopolyesters as a potential remedy of today's plastic scenario
		General aspects about PHA biopolyesters
		Raw materials available for economic and sustainable PHA biopolyester production
	Cyanobacteria as PHA-producing cell factories
		General aspects of PHA biosynthesis by cyanobacteria
		Enzymatic background of PHA biosynthesis by cyanobacteria
	Factors affecting cyanobacterial PHA composition, production, and other storage compounds
		Composition of PHA produced by cyanobacteria
		Production and intracellular degradation conditions for PHA in cyanobacteria
		Other storage compounds produced by cyanobacteria in parallel with PHA biosynthesis
	Comparison of autotrophic and mixotrophic cultivation of cyanobacteria
		Spirulina sp. under different carbon-supply regimes
		Nostoc sp. under different carbon-supply regimes
		Anabaena sp. under different carbon-supply regimes
		Synechocystis sp. under different carbon-supply regimes
		Aulosira sp.
	Extremophilic cyanobacterial PHA producers
		PHA production by thermophilic cyanobacteria
		PHA production by halophilic cyanobacteria
		Cyanobacteria cultivated at extreme pH conditions
	Mixed microbial culture cultivations
	Genetic engineering-A tool to boost PHA biosynthesis by cyanobacteria
	Production scales and production techniques for cyanobacterial PHA production
	Conclusion
	References
23
UV-screening from microalgae
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	UV-induced skin problems
	UV-absorbing compounds from microalgae
		Carotenoids
		Mycosporine-like amino acids
		Scytonemin
	Industrial applications of UV screening from microalgae
	Conclusions
	References
24
Volatile organic compounds from microalgae
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	Biosynthesis mechanism of volatile organic compounds in microalgae
	Environmental factors affecting VOCs production from microalgae
	Application of VOCs from microalgae
	Techniques for VOCs recovery
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
25
Microalgae as enzymes biofactories
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	Microalgal enzymes
		Amylases
		Peroxidases
		Proteases
		Lipases
		Phytases
		Superoxide dismutases (SODs)
		Carbonic anhydrase
		Laccases
		Galactosidases
		l-asparaginase
	Final considerations
	References
Part 4: Engineering Approaches Applied to Microalgal Processes and Products
26
Process integration applied to microalgae-based systems
	Introduction
	A general overview of microalgae-based processes and products
	Process integration fundamentals
		Energy integration
		Mass integration
		Water integration
	Environmental and economic indicators of microalgae integrated systems
		Life cycle assessment
		Economic outlooks
	Concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
27
Process intensification applied to microalgae-based processes and products
	Introduction
	Process intensification at different phases of bulk production of microalgae
		Selection of microalgae strain
		Cultivation
		Harvesting
			Coagulation/flocculation
			Sedimentation
			Flotation
			Electrical base process
			Centrifugation
			Filtration
		Cell drying
		Cell disruption methods
			Bead milling
			High-pressure homogenization
			High-speed homogenization
			Ultrasonication
			Microwave
			Supercritical fluid extraction
			Biological extraction
			Pulsed electric field (PEF)
	Process intensification methods applied to different microalgae-based products
		Biodiesel
		Bioethanol
		Biohydrogen/biogas
		Process intensification in wastewater treatment using microalgae
		Process intensification in carbon dioxide capture using microalgae
		Process intensification in microalgal pigments extraction
		Single-cell protein for food application
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
28
Microalgal biorefineries
	Introduction
	Biorefinery concept
	Microalgae-based biorefinery
		Wastewater treatment
		Carbon dioxide mitigation
		Biofuel generation
			Thermochemical conversion
			Biochemical conversion
			Transesterification
			Photosynthetic microbial fuel cell
		Valuable products obtained from microalgae
			Lipids
			Proteins
			Carbohydrates
			Pigments
				Carotenoids
				Chlorophylls
				Phycobiliproteins
			Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
		Microalgae-based bioplastics
		Microalgae-based biofertilizers
	Examples of microalgae-based biorefinery
		Nannochloropsis sp. biorefinery
		Anabaena sp. biorefinery
		Chlorella vulgaris biorefineries
		Chlorella protothecoides biorefinery
		Chlamydomonas reinhardtii biorefinery
		Dunaliella salina biorefinery
		Dunaliella tertiolecta biorefinery
		Arthrospira (Spirulina) biorefinery
		Spirogyra sp. biorefinery
		Scenedesmus obliquus biorefinery
		Tetraselmis sp. biorefinery
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
29
The bioeconomy of microalgae-based processes and products
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
	Algae bioeconomy and sustainability
	Algae products and circularity
	Supply chain characteristics
	Algae production and trade
	Conclusions
	References
30
Life cycle assessment of microalgae-based processes and products
	Introduction
	What is life cycle assessment (LCA) and in which respects can LCA be useful?
	Application of peer-reviewed life cycle assessment to microalgae-based products and processes
		Biofuels
			Biodiesel
			Hydrocarbons generated by B. braunii
			Microalgal fuels obtained by hydrothermal liquefaction
			Microalgal fuels produced by other high-temperature thermochemical processes
			Biojet fuel
			Biogas
			Hydrogen
		Applications in the food and feed sector
			Feed for aquaculture
			Proteins
			Cyanobacterial hydrolysate
			N-3 fatty acids
			Phycocyanin
		Other applications
			Fertilizer
			Extracted microalgal residue for polylactic acid (PLA) blends
			Wastewater treatment
	Conclusions
	References
31
Exergy analysis applied to microalgae-based processes and products
	Chapter outline
	Introduction
		Benefits of algae biofuel
		Basic algae biology
	Cultivation and harvesting technologies
		Cultivation systems
		Harvesting technologies
	Extraction technologies
	Current state of microalgae-feedstock biorefineries
		Products from algae
	Exergy analysis in microalgae-feedstock biorefineries
		Main concepts of exergy
		Exergy formulation
		Exergy applied to biomass processes
		Exergy analysis in a microalgae-feedstock biorefinery
	Case studies
		Case 1: Biodiesel production from Chlorella vulgaris microalgae through acid esterification and basic transesteri ...
		Case 2: Biodiesel production from C. vulgaris microalgae through a pretreatment with ZnCl2 and basic transesterif ...
		References
		Further reading
32
Scale-up of microalgae-based processes
	Chapter outline
	Basic microalgal metabolism
		Autotrophic production
		Heterotrophic production
		Mixotrophic production
	Physical processes in microalgal reactors
		Mixing
		Mass transfer in photobioreactors
			Measurement of kLa
				The outgassing method
				The continuous method
		Shear stress in photobioreactors
			Sensitivity to shear stress
		Light in photobioreactors
			Light path
			Translucency, transparency
			Materials for photobioreactor construction
			Enhancing light flux into photobioreactors
			The influence of discontinuous irradiation
	Scalability of cultivation systems
		Tubular photobioreactors
			Tube length
			Tube diameter
		Flat panels
			Height
			Depth
			Width
		Closely spaced flat panel photobioreactor
		Raceway ponds
			Area
			Depth
		Cascade flumes
	Scale and productivity
		Large diameter tubular reactor
		Small diameter tubular reactor
		Medium diameter tubular reactor
		Flat panel
		Tube length and diameter in tubular reactors
			Tube diameter
			Tube length
			References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z
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