Present Knowledge in Nutrition, Volume 2: Clinical and Applied Topics in Nutrition

Cover
Present Knowledge in Nutrition: CLINICAL AND APPLIED TOPICS IN NUTRITION
Copyright
Dedication
Editor Biographies
	Bernadette P. Marriott, PhD
	Diane F. Birt, PhD
	Virginia A. Stallings, MD, MS
	Allison A. Yates, PhD, MSPH, RD
Contributors to Volume 2
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section A: Lifestage Nutrition and Maintaining Health
1. Infant nutrition
	I. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	II. Physiological Demands of Life Stages
		A Development of Gastrointestinal Function
		B Normal Expected Growth
			Weight loss after birth
			Growth monitoring
			Growth assessment
		C Term Infants
			Human milk
				Breastfeeding Support
				Expression and storage of human milk
				Donor milk
			Formula
				Nutritional composition
				Preparation
				Soy formula
				Hydrolyzed and amino acid–based formula
				Prebiotic and probiotic additives
				Other bioactive compounds
				Homemade formula
		D Premature Infants
			Parenteral nutrition
			Enteral nutrition
				Introduction of feeds
				Maternal milk
				Donor milk
				Fortification
			Assessing growth
			After discharge
		E Inborn Errors of Metabolism
	III. Nutritional Requirements
		A Basis for Key Nutrient Recommendations
			Global differences
			Supplementation
				Vitamin D supplementation
				Iron supplementation
			Risk of micronutrient deficiencies
				Iron
				Zinc
				Vitamin B12
				Other micronutrients
		B Dietary Guidance
			Practices
				Expected calories/volumes
				Complementary foods
				Introduction of highly allergenic foods
				Vegan/vegetarian diets
			Issues of concern
				Contraindications to breastfeeding, infant, and maternal
				Recreational drugs
				Breastfeeding problems
				Growth faltering
				MPI
		C Other Guidance
			Beyond one year: transition to toddler diet
			Hospitalized infant
				Nutritional assessment
				Fluid requirements
				Calorie and protein needs
				Enteral
				Parenteral
	IV. References
2. NUTRIENT NEEDS AND REQUIREMENTS DURING GROWTH
	I. INTRODUCTION
	II. CHILDHOOD
		A Growth Rates
		B Nutrient Requirements
			Energy
			Protein
			Fat
			Micronutrients
		C Feeding Behavior
			Toddlers (1–3 years)
			Early childhood (4–6 years)
			Middle childhood (7–9 years)
	III. ADOLESCENCE
		A Growth
		B Nutritional Needs of Adolescents
			Energy
			Protein
			Minerals
			Vitamins
			Fiber
		C Nutritional and Pubertal Assessment
		D States of Altered Growth Patterns
			Obesity
				Genetics
				Environmental and behavioral
				Resting energy expenditure (REE)
				Dietary intake
				Evaluation and treatment
			Adolescent pregnancy
	IV. CONCLUSION
	Acknowledgments
	V. REFERENCES
3. Maternal nutrient metabolism and requirements in pregnancy
	I. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	II. Physiological Demands of Pregnancy
		A Hormonal Changes
		B Changes in Blood and Other Fluids
		C Weight Gain During Pregnancy
	III. Nutritional Requirements
		A Basis for Key Nutrient Recommendations
		B Dietary Guidance
			Energy
			Fats and essential fatty acids
			Carbohydrate
			Protein
			Vitamin A
			Vitamin D
			Vitamin B6
			Folate
			Calcium
			Iron
			Zinc
			Iodine
		C Other Guidance
			Alcohol
			Caffeine
			Pregnancy in women with obesity
			Gestational diabetes mellitus
			Diet quality patterns in pregnancy
			Suitability and inadequacies of popular diets in the prenatal period
				Vegan diet
				Ketogenic Diet
				Low-carbohydrate diet
				Paleolithic (or caveman) diet
				Gluten-free diet
				Intermittent fasting/time-restricted feeding
			Food safety and exposure to food-based toxins in pregnancy
	Acknowledgments
	IV. References
4. Nutrient metabolism and requirements in lactation
	I. Summary
	II. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
			Maternal benefits of breastfeeding
			Contraindications
	III. Physiological demands of lactation
	IV. Nutritional Requirements
		A Basis for Key Nutrient Recommendations
		B Dietary Guidance
			Practices
				Fluid needs
				Energy needs
				Protein
				Vegetarians
				Lipids
				Omega “6 and 3” fatty acids
				Carbohydrates
				Vitamins
				Fat-soluble vitamins
				Water-soluble vitamins
				Minerals
			Issues of concern
				Bariatric surgery
				Substances of concern
		C Other Guidance
			Exercise
			Allergies and food sensitivities
			Weight loss supplements
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
5. Nutrition, aging, and requirements in the elderly
	I. Introduction
	II. Physiological Demands of Older Persons
		A Age-Related Changes in Body Composition and Functions
			Sarcopenia
			Changes due to decreased organ function
		B Effect of Aging on Bone Mass and Mineral Density
		C Age-Related Changes in Energy Expenditure—Effects of Body Composition and Physical Activity
		D Changes in the Immune Function: Chronic Low-Grade Inflammation and its Consequences
		E Age-Associated Diseases
	III. Nutritional Requirements of Older Persons
		A Basis for Key Nutrient Recommendations
			Protein
			Micronutrients
			Nutrients in bone health: Calcium, vitamin D, vitamin K
		B Dietary Guidance
			Reduced energy requirements call for a higher nutrient density
			Beneficial effects of nutrients on immune function
			Beneficial effects of nutrients on muscle and bone
			Beneficial effects of nutrients on cardiovascular risk factors
			Beneficial effects of fiber
		C Factors Contributing to Malnutrition in Older Adults
			Lowered food intake
			Other factors leading to anorexia
		D Other Guidance
	IV. References
6. Nutrition for sport and physical activity
	I. Overview
	II. Introduction
	III. Fueling for Sport and Physical Activity
		A Matching Energy Intake Changes in Energy Demands
		B Management of Body Weight and Composition for Optimal Performance
		C Eating for Health and Injury Prevention
	IV. Eating Before/During Exercise to Reduce/Delay Fatigue
	V. Recovery Nutrition
		A Eating for Optimal Recovery
	VI. Sport foods and supplements: are they necessary?
		A Use of Sports Foods and Supplements
	VII. Current Issues in Sports Nutrition: Commentaries on Topical Controversies in Sports Nutrition
		A Commentary 1: “Train Low” for Optimal Training Adaptations: When Less is More
		B Commentary 2. The Resurgence of Ketogenic Low-Carbohydrate, High-Fat Diets for Endurance Performance
		C Commentary 3. Low Energy Availability, Female Athlete Triad, and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport
	VIII. Conclusion
	IX. References
7. A ration is not food until it is eaten: nutrition lessons learned from feeding soldiers
	I. Introduction
	II. Military Research Priorities
		A Soldier Provisioning in the Public Eye
		B Nutritional Health Diplomacy
		C Military Organizational Priorities
	III. A New Research Organizational Strategy
		A Modern Army Nutrition Science Research
		B Colocation of Food Technology and Nutrition Science
		C Partnership With the Pennington Biomedical Research Center (PBRC)
		D Authoritative Advice From the Committee on Military Nutrition Research (CMNR)
	IV. Energy Requirements for Active, Healthy Individuals
		A Total Daily Energy Expenditure Requirements
		B Not Eating Enough
		C Physiology of Semistarvation
		D Macronutrition
	V. Test and Evaluation of Field Rations: Nutritional Requirements in Extreme Environments
		A Ration Technology Development
		B Field Ration Studies
		C Hot Weather Rations
		D Cold Weather Rations
		E Continuous Ration Feeding
		F Limited Use Rations
	VI. Performance-enhancing Ration Components and Trying to Protect Soldiers from Bad Ideas
		A Supplements
		B Performance-Enhancing Ration Components
		C Caffeine
		D Carbohydrates
		E Antioxidants
		F Mineral/Micronutrients
	VII. Body Composition and Readiness Standards
		A Body Composition Methodologies Development
		B Body Fat Standards
		C Soldier Readiness and Weight Management
	VIII. Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	IX. References
8. Energy balance: impact of physiology and psychology on food choice and eating behavior
	I. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	II. Psychology of Food Choice—Why We Eat What We Eat
		A Restrained Eating Behavior and Disinhibition
		B Emotional and External Eating Behavior
		C Emotionality Theory
	III. Nutritional Influences on Food Choice
		A Diet Composition—Not All Calories Are Equal When Influencing Satiety
		B Energy Density—The Amount of Energy PerGram of Food
	IV. Non Nutritional Influences on Food Choice
		A Palatability—Sensory Capacity to Increase Food Consumption
		B Sensory Variety—We Are Offered More We Eat More
		C Portion Size—Plate Size or Meal Size to Influence How Much We Eat
		D Stress—Do You Eat More or Less When Stressed?
		E Food Addiction—Does This Phenomenon Exist?
	V. Physiology Influencing Food Choice
	VI. Body Composition Assessment of Body Stores
		A Body Composition Assessment of Energy Balance
		B Energy Cost of Weight Gain and Weight Loss
		C Weight Change in Response to Overfeeding
	VII. Conclusion
	VIII. References
9. Eating behaviors and strategies to promote weight loss and maintenance
	I. Introduction and Background
		A Biology of Eating Behaviors and Body Weight Regulation
		B Homeostatic System of Food Intake Regulation
		C Reward System of Hedonic Food Intake Regulation
		D Habit-Driven Food Intake
		E Leptin and Regulation of Energy Stores
		F Biologic and Metabolic Adaptations to Weight Loss
		G Biology of Weight Loss Benefits
	II. Current State of the Art and Best Practices in Achieving and Sustaining Weight Loss Through Lifestyle Modification
		A Learnings From Large Randomized Clinical Trials Demonstrating Weight Reduction Over The Long Term
		B Long-Term Weight Loss Maintenance and The National Weight Control Registry
		C National Recommendations and Guidelines
	III. Eating Behaviors to Produce Weight Loss
		A Calorie Targets, Deficits, Points, and Exchanges
		B Episodic Fasting
		C Mindfulness, Slowing the Rate of Food Intake, and Increasing Oral Processing Time
		D Meal Replacements (Partial and Total)
		E Tools to Help Modify Eating Behaviors (Selfmonitoring and Tracking Tools, Oral Device, and Waist Cord)
			Smartphone applications
			Wearable technology
			eHealth interventions
			Devices/strategies to modify eating behavior
	IV. Weight Loss Maintenance Challenges
	V. Recommendations Based on Eating and Activity Behaviors in NWCR
		A Eating Behavior
		B Physical Activity Levels
	VI. Obesity Across the Life Span and Importance of Preventing Drivers of Gain
		A Obesity and Aging
		B Drivers of Weight Gain Across The Life Span
			Stress
			Sleep
			Medications for obesity
	VII. Obesity Across the Life Span and Body Composition Changes With Aging, Menopause
		A Role of Dietary Macronutrient Composition in Long-Term Weight Loss
		B Metabolic Dysregulation and Aging
		C Treatment Targets–Fat Versus Weight Loss and Muscle Retention
		D Promising Approaches to Enhance Long-Term Weight/Fat Loss
			Resistance training
			High-protein diets
			Portion control plates
			Intermittent fasting
	VIII. Conclusion
	IX. References
10. Taste, cost, convenience, and food choices
	I. Overview
	II. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	III. Taste, Palatability, and Satiety
		A Measuring Human Taste
		B Sweet, Bitter, Sour, Salty, and Umami
		C Sensory Response to Fats
		D Palatability and Satiety
		E Hedonic Responses and Food Liking
	IV. Time, Money, and Health
		A Food Prices and Dietary Costs
		B Time and Convenience
		C Nutrient Density and Health
	V. Conclusion
	VI. References
Section B: Nutrition Monitoring, Measurement, and Regulation
11. Present knowledge in nutrition—nutrient databases
	I. INTRODUCTION
	II. Background
		A Food Composition Tables
		B Food Components
		C Available Databases
	III. Sources of Data and Data Types
		A Contracts
			Identify foods and critical nutrients for sampling and analysis
			Evaluate existing data for scientific quality
			Devise and implement a probability-based sampling survey of US foods
			Analyze sampled foods under USDA-supervised laboratory contracts
			Compile newly generated data to update the composition database
		B Food Industry
		C Literature
		D Calculations
			Nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors
			Energy factors
			Total sugars
			Carbohydrate by difference
			Other calculations to fill-in missing values
			Assumed zero
			Another form of the same food
			Recipes
			Formulations
	IV. Data Quality Evaluation System
		A Sampling Plan
		B Number of Samples
		C Sample Handling
		D Analytical Methodology
		E Analytical Quality Control
	V. Conclusion
	VI. References
12. Nutrition surveillance
	I. Introduction
	II. Definitions and Explanatory Relationships
		A Anthropometry
		B Biological Samples
		C Dietary Assessment
			Tools used for dietary assessment
				Food balance sheets
				Total diet studies
				UPCs and electronic scanning devices
				The food account method
				The household food record
				Individual food records
				The 24-hour
				The FFQ
				Screeners
			Process of nutrition surveillance
	III. Current Status of Field
		A Nutrition Surveillance in the United States
			Nutrition surveillance of early childhood in the United States
			The US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
				Use of NHANES nutrition surveillance data: examples
				Databases that support nutrition surveillance in the United States
		B Nutrition Surveillance—High-Income Countries
			Canada
			Japan
			South Korea
			Australia
			United Kingdom
		C Nutrition Surveillance—Middle- and Low-Income Countries
			Mexico
			India
			Ethiopia
	IV. Issues Specifically Related to Nutrition Surveillance
		A Importance of Data Quality
		B Introduction of New Technologies
		C Merger of Environmental Data With Nutrition Surveillance Efforts
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
13. Dietary patterns
	I. Introduction
	II. Definitions
	III. Current Status of Field
		A Why Are Dietary Patterns Important?
		B Assessing Dietary Patterns
			Data-driven methods
				Factor analysis and principal component analysis
				Cluster analysis and other person-centered approaches
				Reduced rank regression
			Investigator-defined patterns methods
		C Comparability of Dietary Patterns
		D Application of Dietary Patterns to Nutrition Science
			Etiological research (understanding diet and health relationships)
			Behavioral research
			Monitoring and surveillance
			Use of dietary pattern research in dietary guideline development
	IV. Conclusion
	V. References
14. Assessment of dietary intake by self-reports and biological markers
	I. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	II. Current Status of the Field
		A Different Purposes of Dietary Assessment
		B Available Methods
			Self-reports to assess actual intake
				Food records (FR)
				Twenty-four hour food recall
			Self-reports to assess usual intake
				Dietary history
				Food frequency questionnaire method
			Other methods
			Multiple food records (FR) or 24-hour recalls (24hR) and combined methods
		C Biomarkers of Intake
			Types of biomarkers to assess actual and usual intake
				Recovery markers
				Concentration markers
				Replacement biomarkers
				Predictive biomarkers
			Specific biomarkers of nutrients and foods
			Biomarker requirements
			Strengths and limitations
		D Assessment of Diet Quality
			Assessing dietary supplements and fortified foods
			Technology-based tools and automatic dietary monitoring
			Quantification of portions
				Description (without equipment)
				Scales
				Food models
				Food photographs
		E Choice of a Method to Estimate Intake
			Objective of the study
			Analytical approach and type of information
			Reference period
			The study population
			Comparability with other studies
			Costs, feasibility, and expertise
		F Measurement Error
			Sources of variation
			Types of error
				Random within-person error
				Systematic within-person error
				Random between-person error
				Systematic between-person error
				Biomarker errors
				Evaluation of measurement error
			Removing measurement error
	III. Development and Application of Methods
		A Self-Reports
		B Discovery and Validation of Biomarkers
		C Metabolomics
		D Validation of Biomarkers
	Acknowledgments
	IV. References
15. Establishing nutrient intake values
	I. Introduction
		A Background
	II. Definitions and Explanatory Relationships
		A Uses
		B Terminology
		C Methodological Approaches Employed
			Similarities
			Differences
		D How NIVs Are Developed by Various Expert Groups
	III. Current Status of the Field
		A Dietary Reference Intakes Developed for the United States and Canada
			Estimated Average Requirement
			Recommended Dietary Allowance
			Adequate Intake
			Estimated Energy Requirement
			Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range
			Chronic Disease Risk Reduction Intake
			Tolerable Upper Intake Level
		B Dietary Reference Values Developed for the European Union
		C Nutrient Reference Values Developed for Australia and New Zealand
		D Nutrient Intake Values Developed for Other Countries
		E Nutrient Intake Values Developed by FAO and WHO and With UNU
			Energy requirements (WHO-FAO-UNU)
			Protein and amino acids requirements (WHO-FAO-UNU)
			Dietary protein quality evaluation (FAO)
			Carbohydrates (FAO and WHO)
			Fats and fatty acids (FAO)
			Vitamins and minerals (FAO and WHO)
		F WHO Guidelines
			WHO Guidelines for sodium intakes for adults and children
			WHO Guidelines for sugar intake for adults and children
		G Examples of International Variation
		H Food Labeling: Use of Nutrient Reference Values and Daily Values
	IV. Issues Specifically Related to Nutrient Intake Values
		A Need for Further Harmonization of NIVs
			Terminology
			Processes and procedures for setting NIVs
				Use of systematic reviews and expert committees
				Predefined analytical networks
			Dealing with values not amenable to harmonization
			Recent developments toward international harmonization
		B NIVs for Chronic Disease Risk Reduction
		C NIV Data Gaps
			Available data at all life stages
			Reference values for special subgroups
			Recommendations for nonnutrient bioactive food components
			Risk assessment methods to support UNL reference values
			Updates of NIVs
			Linking personalized nutrition and functional criteria using new genetic findings
		D Appropriateness of Applications in Dietary Assessment and Planning
		E Risk–Benefit Assessments
		F Status of Efforts to Improve NIVs
	V. References
16. Nutrition in labeling
	I. Requirements for Nutrition Labeling in the USA
		A Introduction
		B Basis for Nutrients Declared in Labeling
			Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommendations
			FDA and FSIS nutrition labeling regulatory requirements
			Mandatory and voluntary (optional) nutrients in labeling
				Mandatory nutrients
				Voluntary/optional nutrients
		C The Basis for Declaring Nutrients—Reference Values for Nutrient Intake Needs: Daily Reference Values and Reference Daily In ...
			Daily Reference Values and Reference Daily Intakes
			Daily Value
		D Food Package Label Nutrition Information
			Nutrition Facts vertical format components
				Heading
				Servings information
				Caloric information
				Macronutrient content
				Vitamin and mineral content
				Footnote
				Dual columns
				Alternative formats
				Exemptions
		E Label Requirements for Specific Products
		F 2016 Nutrition Facts Revision—Complex Issues
			Nutrition Facts revisions—added sugars
			Nutrition Facts revisions—dietary fiber
			Nutrition Facts revisions—folate
	II. International Nutrition Labeling: USA, EU, CODEX
	III. Nutrition and Health Benefit Claims
		A Nutrient Content Claims
		B Health Claims
		C Qualified Health Claims
		D FDAMA Nutrient Content and Health Claims
		E Structure/Function Claims
		F Dietary Guidance
	IV. Conclusion
	V. References
17. Food insecurity, hunger, and malnutrition
	I. Introduction
		A Background
		B Key Issues
	II. Definitions, Explanatory Relationships, and Scope
		A Food Insecurity and Hunger
		B Malnutrition
			Wasting in children under age 5 (acute malnutrition)
			Stunting in children under age 5 (chronic malnutrition)
			Overweight in children under 5
			Micronutrient deficiency and anemia in women of childbearing age
			Underweight in women of childbearing years
			Overweight and obesity in adults
		C Global Nutrition Transition and Triple Burden of Malnutrition
		D Mechanisms of Physical and Psychological Consequences of Food Insecurity and Malnutrition
	III. Current Status of Field (Domestically and Internationally)
		A Causes of Food Insecurity, Hunger, and Malnutrition
			Resilience-based framing and the stress adaption process
		B Moving Toward Food Security
		C Basic Human Rights, Rights of Nature, and Food Sovereignty
		D Civic Engagement
	IV. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
Section C: Clinical Nutrition
18. The role of diet in chronic disease
	I. Introduction
	II. The nutrition transition
	III. Nutrients, Foods, and Dietary Patterns in Relation to Obesity
		A Macronutrients
		B Micronutrients
		C Food Groups
		D Dietary Patterns
	IV. Nutrients, Foods, and Dietary Patterns in Relation to Type 2 Diabetes
		A Macronutrients
		B Micronutrients
		C Food Groups
		D Dietary Patterns
	V. Nutrients, Foods, and Dietary Patterns in Relation to Type Cardiovascular Disease
		A Macronutrients
		B Micronutrients
		C Food Groups
		D Dietary Patterns
	VI. Conclusion
	VII. References
19. Eating disorders
	I. Introduction
	II. Medical Complications of Eating Disorders
		A Anorexia Nervosa
		B Bulimia Nervosa
		C Micronutrient Deficiencies
		D Refeeding Syndrome
	III. Assessment
		A Medical Assessment
		B Nutrition Assessment
		C Psychological Assessment
	IV. Risk Factors for Eating Disorders
	V. Treatment
		A Family-Based Treatment
		B Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
		C Nutrition Therapy
		D Pharmacotherapy
		E Prognosis
	VI. Conclusion
	VII. References
20. Diabetes and insulin resistance
	I. Background
	II. Normal Function and Physiology
		A Glucose Utilization and Transport
		B Actions of Insulin
		C Mechanisms of Insulin Action and Glucose Transport at the Cellular Level
		D Insulin Sensitivity
	III. Abnormal Physiology and Function
		A Characteristics of Diabetes
		B Insulin Resistance
			Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance
			Inducing insulin resistance
			Determining insulin resistance
		C Type 1 Diabetes
			Prevention
			Etiology and diagnosis
		D Type 2 Diabetes
			Cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes
	IV. Primary Treatments for Diabetes
		A Type 1 Diabetes
			Dietary management
			Achieving glycemic control
			Medical nutrition therapy
		B Type 2 Diabetes
			How to maximize insulin sensitivity to decrease risk of type 2 diabetes
			Diet composition and type 2 diabetes
				Dietary fat and insulin sensitivity
				Dietary carbohydrates and insulin sensitivity
				Sucrose and fructose
				Low-GI diets
				Micronutrients and insulin resistance
			Diet and type 2 diabetes
				High- versus low-carbohydrate diets
				GI/GL
				Mediterranean diet
				Very–low-calorie diets (VLCD)
		C Gestational Diabetes
		D Implications for Management
		E Resolving Unanswered Questions
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
21. Hypertension
	I. Normal Function and Physiology
		A Measurement of Blood Pressure
		B Role of the Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System
		C Normal Autonomic Nervous System Control
		D Role of Nitric Oxide
		E Age-Related Changes in BP
	II. Pathophysiology
		A Abnormal Physiology or Function
			Impaired nitric oxide production
			Role of the central nervous system
			Hypertensive effect of alcohol
			Clinical consequences of raised blood pressure
				Effect of lowering BP on risk
		B Role of Diet and Lifestyle in the Onset Hypertension
			Prevalence of hypertension internationally
			Contributing risk factors
	III. Primary Treatment Modalities
		A Surgical Treatment
		B Pharmacological Treatment
		C Lifestyle and Dietary Management
			Obesity
			Dietary lipids
			Salt (sodium chloride)
			Sucrose
			Alcohol
			Fruit and vegetables
			Dairy products
			Potassium intake
			Salt substitutes
			Plant bioactive materials
		D An Integrated Dietary Approach to Prevent Hypertension
	IV. References
22. Nutrition and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
	I. Normal vascular function and physiology
	II. Pathophysiology of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease
		A Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Peripheral Vascular Disease
		B Endothelial Injury
			Physical/mechanical factors
			Oxidative stress
			Elevated cholesterol and lipoprotein modification
		C Inflammatory Response
		D Plaque Progression and Stabilization
	III. Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis
		A Smoking
		B Blood Pressure
		C Blood Glucose
		D Role of Diet in Onset of CVD
			Poor-quality diet
			Role of sodium in the onset of CVD
			Role of macronutrients in the onset of CVD
			Role of n-3 fatty acids (also known as omega-3 fatty acids) in the onset of CVD
				Plant-based n-3 fatty acids: α-linolenic acid
				Marine-derived n-3 fatty acids
			Summary: role of diet in onset of CVD
	IV. Primary Nutritional Treatment Modalities
		A Dietary Patterns for Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease
			DASH diet
			Mediterranean diet
			Vegetarian diet (includes vegan)
		B Dietary Guidance in the Management of ASCVD
			To lower elevated LDL-C (and non-HDL-C)
			To manage hypertriglyceridemia
			To decrease hypertension
			Overweight and obesity
			Role of the Registered Dietitian Nutritionist
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
23. Nutrition and gastrointestinal disorders
	I. Introduction
	II. Esophageal disorders
		A Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
		B Eosinophilic Esophagitis
	III. Gastric Disorders
		A Bariatric Surgery
			Nutritional considerations in bariatric surgery
				Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (Fig. 23.3)
				Laparoscopic adjustable gastric band
				Vertical sleeve gastrectomy
				Bileopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch
			Nutritional deficiencies
				Macronutrients
				Micronutrients
					Fat-soluble vitamins:
					Water-soluble vitamins
					Trace minerals
	IV. Duodenal and proximal small bowel disorders
		A Celiac Disease
	V. Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas
		A Pancreas
			Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
		B Liver and Gallbladder
	VI. Disorders of the Colon
		A Inflammatory Bowel Disease
			Diet as a risk factor for IBD
			General nutritional considerations with IBD
			Specific nutrient concerns in IBD
			Specific nutrient supplementation in IBD
			Diet therapy for IBD: structured diets
	VII. Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders
	VIII. Summary
	Acknowledgments
	IX. References
24. Kidney disease and nutrition in adults and children
	I. Introduction
	II. Protein-Energy Wasting: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Significance
	III. Insulin Resistance and Dyslipidemia
	IV. CKD—Mineral and Bone Disease
	V. Nutritional Assessment in CKD Patients
		A Subjective Global Assessment
		B Dietary Intake Records
		C Hand Grip
		D Body Composition
		E Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
		F Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry
		G Anthropometric Measurement
	VI. Pediatric Nutrition and Malnutrition Status in CKD
	VII. Treating Nutritional Deficiencies in Pediatric and Adult CKD Patients
	VIII. Growth Hormone in Pediatric CKD Patients
	IX. Contraindications for Growth Hormone Therapy
	X. Renal Replacement Therapy
	XI. Dietary Composition in CKD
		A Protein
		B Fat
		C Carbohydrates
		D Vitamins
		E Trace Elements
		F Nutrition Counseling
		G Intradialytic Nutritional Support
		H Preparation for Kidney Transplantation in Children With CKD/ESRD
	XII. Future Directions
	Acknowledgments
	XIII. References
25. Alcohol: the role in nutrition and health
	I. Introduction
	II. Alcohol metabolism
	III. The Nutritional Assessment of the Alcoholic Patient
	IV. Alcohol and Nutrition
	V. Alcohol and Energy Metabolism
	VI. Effects of Alcohol on Lipid Metabolism
	VII. Alcohol and carbohydrate metabolism
	VIII. Effect of Alcohol on Fat-Soluble Vitamins
		A Vitamin A
		B Vitamin E
		C Vitamin K
		D Vitamin D
	IX. Effects of Alcohol on Water-Soluble Vitamins
		A Thiamin
		B Riboflavin
		C Niacin
		D Vitamin B6
		E Folic Acid
	X. Effects of Alcohol on Mineral and Trace Element Metabolism
		A Magnesium
		B Zinc
	XI. Alcohol, Mortality, and Cardiovascular Disease
		A Alcohol and Type II Diabetes Mellitus
		B Alcohol and Hypertension
		C Alcohol and Stroke
	XII. Alcohol and liver disease
	XIII. Alcohol and Cancer
	XIV. Alcohol, Bone, and Muscle
	XV. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
	XVI. Alcohol and Bariatric Patients
	XVII. Conclusion
	XVIII. References
26. Liver disease
	I. Normal Function and Physiology
	II. Pathophysiology
		A Abnormal Physiology and Function
			Overview of liver disease
			Prevalence and assessment of malnutrition in liver disease
			Causes of malnutrition in liver disease
				Food availability, diet quality, unpalatable diets
				Anorexia, altered taste, and smell
				Nausea and gastroparesis
				Bacterial overgrowth and diarrhea
				Hormones and cytokine effects
				Complications of liver disease
			Nutritional mechanisms of liver disease
				Gut barrier dysfunction, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), and Gut:Liver axis
					Nutrition and microbiome in liver disease
					Dietary factors and microbial metabolites in liver disease
					Dysbiosis and alcoholic liver disease
					Dysbiosisand nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
					Novel therapeutic strategies: nutritional modulation of the gut microbiota
		B Role of Diet on Onset and Progression of Liver Disease
			Protein
			Fat
			Carbohydrate
			Micronutrients
	III. Primary Treatment Modalities for Liver Disease
		A Medical and Surgical Treatment
		B Nutritional Therapy
			Outpatient
			Inpatient care
			Transplantation
	IV. Drug–Nutrient Interactions in Liver Disease
	Acknowledgments
	V. References
27. Nutritional anemias
	I. Normal Function and Physiology
		A Introduction
		B Epidemiology
		C Consequences and Economic Burden
			Mortality
			Adverse pregnancy outcomes
			Poor cognitive development
			Economic burden of nutritional anemia
	II. Pathophysiology
		A Nutritional Anemia: Iron Deficiency
			Iron metabolism
			Common causes of ID (Fig. 27.1)
			Stages of iron deficiency
			Iron and other micronutrients
				bksec4_1
				Calcium
				Zinc
		B Nutritional Anemia: Other Micronutrients
			Folate
			Vitamin B12
			Vitamin A
		C Anemia in Protein-Energy Malnutrition
		D Anemia in Chronic Inflammation and Infection
		E Diagnosis—Clinical and Field
	III. Primary Treatment and Control Modalities
		A Dietary Diversification
		B Iron Supplementation
		C Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation
		D Fortification
		E Delayed Umbilical Cord Clamping
	IV. References
28. Nutrition and bone disease
	I. Introduction
	II. Bone mass accrual
	III. Bone loss and fracture risk
	IV. Nutrition and bone growth (Fig. 28.2)
		A Calcium
		B Protein
	V. Pathophysiology of Bone Loss
		A Estrogens
		B Endocrine Disorders
		C Nutrition
	VI. Strategies to Prevent Falls
	VII. Nutritional Supplementations and Bone Health
		A Vitamin D
		B Calcium
	VIII. Dietary protein
		A Dietary Protein and Bone Mineral Density
		B Dietary Protein and Fracture Risk
		C Dietary Protein–Calcium Interaction
	IX. Dietary Pattern
	X. Dietary Modulation of Gut Microbiota Composition and/or Metabolism
	XI. Conclusions
	XII. References
29. Food allergies, sensitivities, and intolerances
	I. Normal function and physiology
	II. Diseases
	III. Abnormal Physiology or Function
	IV. IgE-Mediated Food Allergy
	V. Delayed IgE-Mediated hypersensitivities
	VI. Cell-Mediated Hypersensitivities
	VII. Mixed IgE- and Cell-Mediated Hypersensitivities
	VIII. Other NonIgE-Mediated Food Allergies
	IX. Food Sensitivities
	X. Food intolerances
	XI. Role of Diet in the Onset of the Condition
	XII. Medical Treatment
	XIII. Dietary Management
	XIV. Conclusion
	XV. References
30. Nutrition and autoimmune diseases
	I. Introduction
	II. Autoimmune Disease
		A Definition
		B Type and Prevalence
		C Etiology
		D Immunopathology
	III. Nutritional Intervention in Major Autoimmune Diseases
		A Multiple Sclerosis
			General information about MS
			Role of nutrition and dietary factors and underlying mechanisms
				Evidence from observational studies
				Evidence from intervention studies
		B Rheumatoid Arthritis
			General information about RA
			Role of nutrition and dietary factors and underlying mechanisms
				Evidence from observational studies
				Evidence from intervention studies
		C Inflammatory Bowel Diseases
			General information about IBD
			Role of nutrition and dietary factors in IBD and underlying mechanisms
				Evidence from observational studies
				Evidence from intervention studies
	IV. Conclusions and Perspectives
	V. References
31. Specialized nutrition support
	I. Introduction
	II. Nutritional assessment
	III. Nutrient Intake Goals
	IV. Enteral Nutrition Support
		A Routes for Enteral Tube Feeding
		B Tube Feeding Formula Selection
		C Methods of Tube Feeding Administration
		D Complications of Enteral Tube Feeding
	V. Parenteral Nutrition Support
		A Indications for Parenteral Nutrition
		B Parenteral Nutrition Administration
		C Clinical Monitoring of Parenteral Nutrition
		D Adverse Effects of Parenteral Nutrition
	VI. Future directions
	V. References
32. Nutrition support in critically ill adults and children
	I. Changes in Function and Physiology During Critical Illness
		A Introduction
		B The Acute Phase Response
		C Nutrition Status and Risk Assessment
		D Determining Nutritional Needs in the Critically Ill Patient
		E Obesity in the Critically Ill Patient
		F Provision of Nutrition Support
			Enteral nutrition
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
		G Parenteral Nutrition
		H Refeeding Syndrome
	II. Pathophysiology and Nutrition Management of Specific Critical Illness States
		A Sepsis and Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
		B Acute Respiratory Failure, Acute Lung Injury, and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
		C Acute Kidney Injury
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
		D Cardiovascular Disease States
			Adult cardiovascular disease
			Pediatric cardiovascular disease
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
		E Traumatic Brain Injury
			Adult patients
			Pediatric patients
	III. Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	IV. References
33. Clinical nutrition in patients with cancer
	I. Nutrition in cancer
	II. Cancer-Associated Weight Loss and Malnutrition
		A Etiology and Pathophysiology
		B Role of Symptoms and Treatment-Related Side Effects
			Appetite loss
			Disease and treatment-related symptoms
		C Cancer Cachexia
			Classification of cancer cachexia
	III. Nutritional Treatment in Patients With Cancer
		A Risk Screening and Nutritional Assessment
		B Symptom Assessment
		C Nutritional Treatment
			Nutritional treatment in cachexia
			Pharmacologic treatment of cachexia
			Nutrition at the end of life
			Physical activity as part of nutritional treatment
		D Special Nutritional Support
			Enteral nutrition
			Parenteral nutrition
	Acknowledgments
	IV. References
34. Specialized nutrition support in burns, wasting, deconditioning, and hypermetabolic conditions
	I. Normal Function and Physiology
	II. Severe Burn and Care Management
		A Introduction
		B Characteristics of Burns
			Burn description
			Hypermetabolism after severe burn
			Energy metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction after severe burn
		C Nutrition Disarrangement in Burns
			Malnutrition
			Overnutrition/hyperalimentation
			Refeeding syndrome
			Undernutrition
		D Nutrition Support in Burn Care Management Overview
			General guideline of nutritional management
			Clinical management of nutrition support
	III. Clinical Nutrition Management in Burn
		A Resting Energy Expenditure Requirement and Measurement
			The goal of energy measurement
			Indirect calorimetry
			Mathematical equations
		B Nutrition Component
			Macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids)
				Proteins
				Carbohydrates
				Lipids
			Micronutrients (minerals, vitamins)
				Vitamins
				Minerals
		C Nutrition Delivery Route
			Oral
			Enteral
			Parenteral
		D Nutrition Monitoring and Evaluation
			Nutrition risk screening and monitor procedure
			Nutrition assessment methods
			Monitoring hyperglycemia
	IV. Nonnutritional Support Agents and Manipulations
		A Medications
		B Probiotics and Synbiotics
		C Fluid Resuscitation
	V. Special Populations in Burn Nutrition Management
		A Pediatrics
		B Obesity
		C Military
	VI. References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Z
Contents of Volume 1
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