Negotiation

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents in Brief
Contents
Chapter 1 The Nature of Negotiation
	A Few Words about Our Style and Approach
	Joe and Sue Carter
	Characteristics of a Negotiation Situation
	Interdependence
		Types of Interdependence Affect Outcomes
		Alternatives Shape Interdependence
	Mutual Adjustment
		Mutual Adjustment and Concession Making
		Two Dilemmas in Mutual Adjustment
	Value Claiming and Value Creation
	Conflict
		Definitions
		Levels of Conflict
		Functions and Dysfunctions of Conflict
		Factors That Make Conflict Easy or Difficult to Manage
	Effective Conflict Management
	Overview of the Chapters in This Book
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 2 Strategy and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining
	The Distributive Bargaining Situation
		The Role of Alternatives to a Negotiated Agreement
		Settlement Point
		Bargaining Mix
		Discovering the Other Party’s Resistance Point
		Influencing the Other Party’s Resistance Point
	Tactical Tasks
		Assess the Other Party’s Target, Resistance Point, and Costs of Terminating Negotiations
		Manage the Other Party’s Impressions of Your Target, Resistance Point, and Cost of Terminating Negotiations
		Modify the Other Party’s Perceptions of His or Her Target, Resistance Point, and Cost of Terminating Negotiations
		Manipulate the Actual Costs of Delaying or Terminating Negotiations
	Positions Taken during Negotiation
		Opening Offers
		Opening Stance
		Initial Concessions
		Role of Concessions
		Pattern of Concession Making
		Final Offers
	Commitment
		Tactical Considerations in Using Commitments
		Establishing a Commitment
		Preventing the Other Party from Committing Prematurely
		Finding Ways to Abandon a Committed Position
	Closing the Deal
		Provide Alternatives
		Assume the Close
		Split the Difference
		Exploding Offers
		Sweeteners
	Assessing the Quality of the Agreement
	Hardball Tactics
		Dealing with Typical Hardball Tactics
		Typical Hardball Tactics
	Distributive Bargaining Skills Applicable to Integrative Negotiations
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 Strategy and Tactics of Integrative Negotiation
	An Overview of the Integrative Negotiation Process
		Creating a Free Flow of Information
		Attempting to Understand the Other Negotiator’s Real Needs and Objectives
		Emphasizing Things in Common between the Parties and Minimizing the Differences
		Searching for Solutions That Meet the Needs and Objectives of Both Sides
	Key Steps in the Integrative Negotiation Process
		Step 1: Identify and Define the Problem
		Step 2: Surface Interests and Needs
		Step 3: Generate Alternative Solutions
		Step 4: Evaluate and Select Alternatives
	Assessing the Quality of the Agreement
	Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation
		Some Common Objective or Goal
		Faith in One’s Problem-Solving Ability
		A Belief in the Validity of One’s Own Position and the Other’s Perspective
		The Motivation and Commitment to Work Together
		Trust
		Clear and Accurate Communication
		An Understanding of the Dynamics of Integrative Negotiation
		Section Summary
	Why Integrative Negotiation Is Difficult to Achieve
		The History of the Relationship between the Parties
		A Belief That an Issue Can Only Be Resolved Distributively
		The Mixed-Motive Nature of Most Negotiating Situations
		Short Time Perspectives
	Distributive Bargaining versus Integrative Negotiation
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 4 Negotiation: Strategy and Planning
	Goals—The Focus That Drives a Negotiation Strategy
		Direct Effects of Goals on Choice of Strategy
		Indirect Effects of Goals on Choice of Strategy
	Strategy—The Overall Plan to Achieve One’s Goals
	Strategy versus Tactics
		Unilateral versus Bilateral Approaches to Strategy
		The Dual Concerns Model as a Vehicle for Describing Negotiation Strategies
	Understanding the Flow of Negotiations: Phases
	Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process
		1. Defining the Negotiating Goal
		2. Defining the Major Issue Related to Achieving the Goal
		3. Assembling the Issues, Ranking Their Importance, and Defining the Bargaining Mix
		4. Defining the Interests
		5. Knowing Your Alternatives (BATNAs)
		6. Knowing Your Limits, Including a Resistance Point
		7. Analyzing and Understanding the Other Party’s Goals, Issues, and Resistance Points
		8. Setting One’s Own Targets and Opening Bids
		9. Assessing the Social Context of Negotiation
		10. Presenting the Issues to the Other Party: Substance and Process
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 5 Ethics in Negotiation
	A Sampling of Ethical Quandaries
	What Do We Mean by “Ethics,” and Why Do They Matter in Negotiation?
		Ethics Defined
		Applying Ethical Reasoning to Negotiation
		Ethics versus Prudence versus Practicality versus Legality
	Four Approaches to Ethical Reasoning
		End-Result Ethics
		Duty Ethics
		Social Contract Ethics
		Personalistic Ethics
		Section Summary
	What Questions of Ethical Conduct Arise in Negotiation?
		Ethically Ambiguous Tactics: It’s (Mostly) All about the Truth
		Identifying Ethically Ambiguous Tactics and Attitudes toward Their Use
		Deception by Omission versus Commission
		The Decision to Use Ethically Ambiguous Tactics: A Model
	Why Use Deceptive Tactics? Motives and Consequences
		The Power Motive
		Other Motives to Behave Unethically
		The Consequences of Unethical Conduct
		Explanations and Justifications
		What Factors Shape a Negotiator’s Predisposition to Use Unethical Tactics?
		Demographic Factors
		Personality Differences
		Moral Development and Personal Values
		Contextual Influences on Unethical Conduct
	How Can Negotiators Deal with the Other Party’s Use of Deception?
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 6 Perception, Cognition, and Emotion
	Perception
		Perception Defined
		Perceptual Distortion
	Framing
		Types of Frames
		How Frames Work in Negotiation
		Another Approach to Frames: Interests, Rights, and Power
		The Frame of an Issue Changes as the Negotiation Evolves
	Cognitive Biases in Negotiation
		1. Irrational Escalation of Commitment
		2. Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs
		3. Anchoring and Adjustment
		4. Issue Framing and Risk
		5. Availability of Information
		6. The Winner’s Curse
		7. Overconfidence
		8. The Law of Small Numbers
		9. Self-Serving Biases
		10. Endowment Effect
		11. Ignoring Others’ Cognitions
		12. Reactive Devaluation
	Managing Misperceptions and Cognitive Biases in Negotiation
	Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 7 Communication
	Basic Models of Communication
		Distortion in Communication
	What Is Communicated during Negotiation?
		1. Offers, Counteroffers, and Motives
		2. Information about Alternatives
		3. Information about Outcomes
		4. Social Accounts
		5. Communication about Process
		Are Negotiators Consistent or Adaptive?
		Does It Matter What Is Said Early in the Negotiation?
		Is More Information Always Better?
	How People Communicate in Negotiation
		Characteristics of Language
		Use of Nonverbal Communication
		Selection of a Communication Channel
	How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
		The Use of Questions
		Listening
		Role Reversal
	Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations
		Avoiding Fatal Mistakes
		Achieving Closure
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 8 Finding and Using Negotiation Power
	Why Is Power Important to Negotiators?
	A Definition of Power
	Sources of Power—How People Acquire Power
		Informational Sources of Power
		Power Based on Personality and Individual Differences
		Power Based on Position in an Organization (Structural Power)
		Power Based on Relationships
		Contextual Sources of Power
	The Consequences of Unequal Power
	Dealing with Others Who Have More Power
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 9 Influence
	Two Routes to Influence: An Organizing Model
	The Central Route to Influence: The Message and Its Delivery
		Message Content
		Message Structure
		Persuasive Style: How to Pitch the Message
	Peripheral Routes to Influence
		Aspects of Messages That Foster Peripheral Influence
		Source Characteristics That Foster Peripheral Influence
		Aspects of Context That Foster Peripheral Influence
	The Role of Receivers—Targets of Influence
		Understanding the Other’s Perspective
		Resisting the Other’s Influence
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 10 Relationships in Negotiation
	Challenging How Relationships in Negotiation Have Been Studied
	Forms of Relationships
		Four Fundamental Relationship Forms
	Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships
		Reputation
		Trust
		Justice
		Relationships among Reputation, Trust, and Justice
		Section Summary
	Repairing a Relationship
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 11 Agents, Constituencies, and Audiences
	The Number of Parties in a Negotiation
	How Agents, Constituents, and Audiences Change Negotiations
		Audiences: Team Members, Constituents, Bystanders, and Others
		Tactical Implications of Social Structure Dynamics: The Negotiator’s Dilemma
	Advice to Agents on Managing Constituencies and Audiences
		Clarify the Role Expectations and Performance Contract
		Clarify Authority to Make Agreements
		Manage Constituency Visibility and Communication
		Communicate Indirectly with Audiences and Constituents
		Communicate Directly to the Other Party’s Constituency
		Communicate Directly to Bystanders
		Build Relationships with Audiences, Constituents, and Other Agents
	When to Use an Agent
	Managing Agents
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 12 Coalitions
	A Situation with More Than Two Parties
	What Is a Coalition?
		Types of Coalitions
	How and Why Coalitions Form and Develop
		When Do Coalitions Form?
		How Do Coalitions Develop?
	Standards for Coalition Decision Making
		Power and Leverage in Coalitions
		How to Build Coalitions: Some Practical Advice
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 13 Multiple Parties, Groups, and Teams in Negotiation
	The Nature of Multiparty Negotiations
		Differences between Two-Party Negotiations and Multiparty Negotiations
		What Dynamics Can Make a Multiparty Negotiation Effective?
	Managing Multiparty Negotiations
		The Prenegotiation Stage
		The Formal Negotiation Stage—Managing the Process and Outcome
		The Agreement Stage
	Interteam Negotiations
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 14 Individual Differences I: Gender and Negotiation
	Defining Sex and Gender
	Research on Gender Differences in Negotiation
		Male and Female Negotiators: Theoretical Perspectives
		Empirical Findings on Gender Differences in Negotiation
	Overcoming Gender Differences
		Motivational Interventions
		Cognitive Interventions
		Situational Interventions
		Section Summary
	Do Gender Differences Really Exist?
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 15 Individual Differences II: Personality and Abilities
	Personality and Negotiation
		Conflict Style
		Social Value Orientation
		Interpersonal Trust
		Self-Efficacy and Locus of Control
		Self-Monitoring
		Machiavellianism
		Face Threat Sensitivity
		Epistemic Motivation
		The “Big Five” Personality Factors
		Section Summary
	Abilities in Negotiation
		Cognitive Ability
		Emotional Intelligence
		Perspective-Taking Ability
		Cultural Ability
	An Alternative Approach: Studying Experienced Negotiators
	A Concluding Note
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 16 International and Cross-Cultural Negotiation
	International Negotiation: Art and Science
	What Makes International Negotiation Different?
		Environmental Context
		Immediate Context
	Conceptualizing Culture and Negotiation
		Culture as Learned Behavior
		Culture as Shared Values
		Culture as Dialectic
		Culture in Context
	The Influence of Culture on Negotiation: Managerial Perspectives
		Definition of Negotiation
		Negotiation Opportunity
		Selection of Negotiators
		Protocol
		Communication
		Time Sensitivity
		Risk Propensity
		Groups versus Individuals
		Nature of Agreements
		Emotionalism
		Section Summary
	The Influence of Culture on Negotiation: Research Perspectives
		Effects of Culture on Negotiation Outcomes
		Effects of Culture on Negotiation Process and Information Exchange
		Effects of Culture on Negotiator Cognition
		Effects of Culture on Negotiator Ethics and Tactics
		Effects of Culture on Conflict Resolution
		Section Summary
	Culturally Responsive Negotiation Strategies
		Weiss’s Culturally Responsive Strategies
		Low Familiarity
		Moderate Familiarity
		High Familiarity
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 17 Managing Negotiation Impasses
	The Nature of Difficult-to-Resolve Negotiations and Why They Occur
		The Nature of Impasse
		What Causes Impasses and Intractable Negotiations?
		Characteristics of the Issues
		Characteristics of the Parties
		Characteristics of the Negotiation Environment
		Characteristics of the Negotiation Setting
	Fundamental Mistakes That Cause Impasses
		Preventing Impasses
	How to Resolve Impasses
		Agreement on the Rules and Procedures
		Reducing Tension and Synchronizing De-escalation
		Improving the Accuracy of Communication
		Controlling Issues
		Establishing Common Ground
		Enhancing the Desirability of Options to the Other Party
		Section Summary
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 18 Managing Difficult Negotiations
	Managing the Shadow Negotiation and Social Contract
		Power Moves
		Process Moves
		Appreciative Moves
		Section Summary
	Responding to the Other Side’s Hard Distributive Tactics
		Call Them on It
		Ignore Them
		Respond in Kind
		Offer to Change to More Productive Methods
		Section Summary
	Responding to Irrationality
	Responding When the Other Side Has More Power
	The Special Problem of Handling Ultimatums
	Responding to Anger
	Responding When the Other Side Is Being Difficult
		Ury’s Breakthrough Approach
		Responding to Difficult People
		Having Conversations with Difficult People
	Duplicitous Negotiations
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 19 Third-Party Approaches to Managing Difficult Negotiations
	Adding Third Parties to the Two-Party Negotiation Process
		Benefits and Liabilities of Third-Party Intervention
		When Is Third-Party Involvement Appropriate?
		Which Type of Intervention Is Appropriate?
	Types of Third-Party Intervention
	Formal Intervention Methods
		Arbitration
		Mediation
		Process Consultation
		Combining Formal Intervention Methods
	Informal Intervention Methods
		Which Approach Is More Effective?
	Alternative Dispute Resolution Systems
	Chapter Summary
Chapter 20 Best Practices in Negotiations
	1. Be Prepared
	2. Diagnose the Fundamental Structure of the Negotiation
	3. Identify and Work the BATNA
	4. Be Willing to Walk Away
	5. Master the Key Paradoxes of Negotiation
		Claiming Value versus Creating Value
		Sticking by Your Principles versus Being Resilient Enough to Go with the Flow
		Sticking with Your Strategy versus Opportunistically Pursuing New Options
		Being Too Honest and Open versus Being Too Closed and Opaque
		Being Too Trusting versus Being Too Distrusting
	6. Remember the Intangibles
	7. Actively Manage Coalitions—Those against You, for You, and Unknown
	8. Savor and Protect Your Reputation
	9. Remember That Rationality and Fairness Are Relative
	10. Continue to Learn from Your Experience
Bibliography
Name Index
Subject Index