Tools of Critical Thinking: Metathoughts for Psychology

Title Page
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
About the Author
Part One: Conceptualizing Phenomena
	Chapter 1: I. The Evaluative Bias of Language: To Describe Is to Prescribe
	Chapter 2: II. The Reification Error: Comparing Apples and Existentialism
		The Reification of Theory
	Chapter 3: III. Multiple Levels of Description: The Simultaneity of Physical and Psychological Events
	Chapter 4: IV. The Nominal Fallacy and Tautologous Reasoning: To Name Something Isn’t to Explain It
		The Nominal Fallacy
		Tautologous Reasoning
	Chapter 5: V. Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables: Black and White, or Shades of Grey?
		Theoretical and Clinical Applications
	Chapter 6: VI. Consider the Opposite: To Contrast Is to Define
	Chapter 7: VII. The Similarity-Uniqueness Paradox: All Phenomena Are Both Similar and Different
		Sources of Error
	Chapter 8: VIII. The Naturalistic Fallacy: Blurring the Line between “Is” and “Should”
		Application 1: Evolutionary Psychology
		Application 2: Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization
		Application 3: Erikson’s Theory of Healthy Ego Functioning
		Caveat and Conclusion
	Chapter 9: IX. The Barnum Effect: “One-Size-Fits-All” Personality Interpretations
Part Two: Explaining Phenomena
	Chapter 10: X. Correlation Does Not Prove Causation: Confusing “What” with “Why”
		Superstitions, Magical Thinking, and the Contiguity-Causation Error
	Chapter 11: XI. Bidirectional Causation: Causal Loops, Healthy Spirals, and Vicious Cycles
	Chapter 12: XII. Multiple Causation: Not “Either/Or,” but “Both/And”
		Advanced Applications of Multiple Causation: Linear and Nonlinear Combinations
	Chapter 13: XIII. Degrees of Causation: Not All Causes Are Created Equal
	Chapter 14: XIV. Multiple Pathways of Causation: Different Causes, Same Effect
Part Three: Common Misattributions
	Chapter 15: XV. The Fundamental Attribution Error: Underestimating the Impact of External Influences
	Chapter 16: XVI. The Intervention-Causation Fallacy: When the Cure Doesn’t Prove the Cause
	Chapter 17: XVII. The Consequence-Intentionality Fallacy: The Effect Doesn’t Prove the Intent
	Chapter 18: XVIII. The “If I Feel It, It Must Be True” Fallacy: The Truth Hurts; But So Do Lies
		Comfortable Truths
		Comfortable Falsehoods
		Uncomfortable Truths
		Uncomfortable Falsehoods
	Chapter 19: XIX. The Spectacular Explanation Fallacy: Extraordinary Events Do Not Require Extraordinary Causes
Part Four: Investigating Phenomena
	Chapter 20: XX. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: Two Methods of Inference
		Deductive Reasoning
		Inductive Reasoning
		Solutions and Applications
	Chapter 21: XXI. Reactivity: To Observe Is to Disturb
	Chapter 22: XXII. The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When Expectations Create Reality
	Chapter 23: XXIII. The Assimilation Bias: Viewing the World through Schema-Colored Glasses
		Diagnostic Labels as Schematic Filters: The Assimilation of Psychopathology
	Chapter 24: XXIV. The Confirmation Bias: Ye Shall Find Only What Ye Shall Seek
		The Confirmatory Bias of Theoretical Orientations
		The Confirmatory Bias of Projective Psychological Testing
	Chapter 25: XXV. The Belief Perseverance Effect: The Rat Is Always Right
	Chapter 26: XXVI. The Hindsight Bias: Predicting a Winner after the Race Is Finished
Part Five: Other Biases and Fallacies in Thinking
	Chapter 27: XXVII. The Representativeness Bias: Fits and Misfits of Categorization
		Systematic Sources of Error
	Chapter 28: XXVIII. The Availability Bias: The Persuasive Power of Vivid Events
	Chapter 29: XXIX. The Insight Fallacy: To Understand It Isn’t Necessarily to Change It
		Benefits of Insight
		Limitations of Insight
Part Six: Conclusions
	Chapter 30: XXX. Every Decision Is a Trade-Off: Take Stock of Pluses and Minuses
		“To Diagnose or Not to Diagnose?”
		“To Metathink or Not to Metathink?”
		Meta-Metathoughts
Epilogue: Concluding Meta-Metathoughts
	To the Psychology Student
	To the Psychology Classroom Instructor
	To the Psychotherapist
	To the Psychological Researcher
	To Students and Instructors in Other Fields of Study
Metathoughts Summary and Antidote Table
Appendix 1: A Proposed Category for the Diagnosticand Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): Pervasive Labeling Disorder
Appendix 2: The Emperor’s Postmodern Clothes: A Brief Guide to Deconstructing Academically Fashionable Phrases for the Uninitiated
Appendix 3: Consider the Opposite (Metathought VI)
Appendix 4: Sociocultural Barnum Statements (Metathought IX)
Appendix 5: Selected Answers to Chapter Exercises
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
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	Title Page
	Table of Contents
	Preface
		Classroom Assessment: Issues and Practices
		Organization of the Book
		Chapter Features
		Acknowledgements
	Chapter 1 - 
Instruction and Assessment
		Introduction
		Linking Assessment with Instruction
			The Missing Link
			State Standards and Benchmarks
			Lesson Plans and Assessments
		Policy and Practice
			The No Child Left Behind Act, Assessment, and Accountability
			Privacy Issues in Providing Assessment Feedback
			Individual Differences: Gender and Diversity Issues
			Inclusion Policies and Assessment Practices
		Summary
			Linking Assessment and Instruction
			Policy and Practice
	Chapter 2 - 
Types of Assessments
		Introduction
		Assessment Definitions and Distinctions
		Categorizing Assessment Procedures
			By Method of Development: Teacher-Constructed versus Standardized Assessments
			By Level of Formality: Informal versus Formal Assessments
			By Instructional Purpose: Formative versus Summative Assessments
			By Type of Grading Standard: Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Assessments
			By Item Format: Objective versus Constructed-Response Assessments
			By Degree of Authenticity: Traditional versus Performance-Based Assessments
		Quality Control with Assessments
			Reliability
			Validity
			Item Analysis
			Using Reliability, Validity, and Item Analysis
		Summary
			Assessment Definitions and Distinctions
			Categorizing Assessment Procedures
			Quality Control with Assessments
	Chapter 3 - 
Planning for Instruction and Assessments
		Introduction
		Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
			Constructing Instructional Objectives and Assessments with Bloom’s Taxonomy
			Lower-Level Cognitive Domains
				Knowledge Level
				Comprehension Level
				Application Level
			Higher-Level Cognitive Domains
				Analysis Level
				Synthesis Level
				Evaluation Level
		The Anderson and Krathwohl Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy
			The Cognitive Process Dimension
				Remember
				Understand
				Apply
				Analyze
				Evaluate
				Create
			Using the Revised Taxonomy
			Assessment Practices with the Revised Taxonomy
			Comparing the Revised Taxonomy with Bloom’s Original Taxonomy
		Hunter’s Model of Planning
		The Constructivist Approach
		Making Sense of It All
		Summary
			Bloom’s Taxonomy
			The Anderson and Krathwohl Revision
			Alternative Approaches
	Chapter 4 
- Diversity, Gender, and Assessments
		Introduction
		Ethnic Issues and Assessments
			Culture and Identity
			Communication Style and Learning Style Differences
			Ethnicity and Student Achievement
			Ethnicity, Language, and Appropriate Assessments
		Gender Differences and Assessments
			Achievement and Aptitude
			Academic Performance, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy
			Type of Assessment Format
		Summary
	Chapter 5 - 
Informal Assessments
		Introduction
		Informal Assessment and Reflective Teaching
		Student-Centered Basis of Informal Assessments
		Constructing Informal Assessments
		Journaling and Other Informal Writing Samples
			The Reflection Log
			The Wrap-Around
			The KWL Response Chart
		Questioning as an Informal Assessment Technique
			Divergent Questions and Mathematics
			Levels of Questioning and Response
			Questions in Action: Questioning History
		A Performance Profile
		Observational Checklists
		Self-Assessment
		Challenges to Informal Assessments
			Language usage
			Stereotypes
			Representational fairness
			Content inclusiveness
		Summary
	Chapter 6 - 
Constructing Formal Classroom Assessments
		Introduction
		Making Choices
			The “Who” Question
			The “What” Question
			The “Where” Question
			The “When” Question
			The “How” Question
		Constructing Objective Assessments
			Constructing Multiple-Choice Items
				Constructing the stem
				Constructing the alternatives
				Higher-order thinking and multiple-choice items
			Constructing Matching Items
			Constructing True/False Items
		Challenges to Objective Items
		Strengths of Objective Assessments
		Summary
	Chapter 7 - 
Constructed-Response Assessments
		Introduction
		Constructing Essay Items
		Grading Decisions with Essay Assessments
			Developing Grading Policies for Essays
			Rubrics for Essay Assessments
			Standardized Assessments and Essays
			Critical Thinking Skills, Essays, and Rubrics
			Communicating Teacher Expectations
		Other Constructed-Response Assessments
		Challenges to Constructed-Response Assessments
		Summary
	Chapter 8 - 
Performance Assessment
		Introduction
		Pathway to Performance Assessment
			Inquiry
			Investigation
			Research
		Types of Performance Assessment
			Portfolios
				What Are Portfolios?
				Why Use Portfolios?
				How to Involve Parents?
				How Will the Portfolio Be Graded?
			Product
			Presentation
		Measuring Performance
			Rubrics
			Evaluation Checklists
		Common Evaluation Instruments
		Comparison and Contrast of Assessment Types
		Summary
	Chapter 9 - 
Assessments and Grades
		Introduction
		Grade Inflation
		Why Do We Grade?
		Grading Policies
			Choosing the Type of Grading Practice
				Process Grading
				Progress Grading
				Effort Grading
				Diversity and Grades
				Grading Children with Disabilities
				Achievement Grading
			Types of Grades
		The Relationship between Assessments and Final Grades
		Preparing Final Grades
		Quality Control Issues with Grades
		Grades and Retention
		Avoiding Grade Challenges
		Communicating with Parents
		Summary
	Chapter 10 - 
Using Standardized Assessments
		Introduction
		Background of Standardized Assessments
			Types of Standardized Assessments
			Binet’s Test
			American Hereditarians
			Transition to Achievement Tests
		The No Child Left Behind Act and Standardized Assessments
		Standardized Achievement Tests
			Types of Standardized Achievement Tests
			Standardized Group Achievement Tests
			Group Achievement Test Content
			Administering Group Achievement Tests
		Statewide Assessments
		Diagnostic Achievement Tests
			Content of Diagnostic Achievement Tests
			Administering and Interpreting Diagnostic Achievement Tests
		Aptitude Tests
			The American College Test (ACT)
			The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
		Intelligence Tests
			The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
			The Wechsler Test Battery
		Statistical Measures in Testing
			Measures of Central Tendency
			Measures of Variability
			Scoring Procedures for Standardized Assessments
		Conducting Conferences about Test Scores
		Summary
	Chapter 11 - 
Assessments, At-Risk Students, and Special Education
		Introduction
		Children at Risk
			Environmental Risk Factors
			Biological Risk Factors
				Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
				Exposure to Lead during Childhood
			Early Assessment and Education for At-Risk Children
		Assessment Issues for Children with Disabilities
			The Defining Aspects of Special Education
			Special Education Regulations and Procedures
			No Child Left Behind and Assessment of Special Education Students
			Special Education Categories
		Assessment and Diagnosis of Children with Disabilities
			Standard Deviation and Special Education
			Diagnostic Characteristics of Major Special Education Categories
				Speech Impairments
					Articulation disorders
					Stuttering
				Mental Retardation
				Learning Disabilities
					Causes of Learning Disabilities
					Neurological Problems, Degree of Impairment, and Successful Remediation
					Language-Related Learning Disabilities
				Emotional/Behavioral Disorders
				Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
		Other Assessment Issues
			Functional Assessments
			Assessment Accommodations
				Assistive Technology
				Conventional Accommodations
		Summary
	Chapter 12 - 
Motivation and Assessment
		Introduction
		Cognitive Views of Motivation
			Motives and Actions
			Negative Motivation and Assessments
				Thoughts about Self-Worth
				Academic Self-Efficacy
				Attributions about Success and Failure
			Attribution Theory
			Locus of Control
			Learned Helplessness
			Achievement Motivation
		Social Cognitive View of Motivation
			Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation
			Development, Motivation, and Assessments
		Summary
	Chapter 13 - 
Special Considerations with Assessments
		Introduction
		Classroom Environment and Assessments
			Creating a Positive Environment
			Classroom Assessment Environment
			Classroom Structure and Conditions
		Test Preparation and Assessments
			Improving Test-Taking Skills
			Alleviating Test Anxiety
			Academic Dishonesty and Classroom Assessments
		Summary
	Chapter 14 - 
Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Development
		Introduction
		Standards-Based Teacher Assessment
		No Child Left Behind and Teacher Quality Standards
			State Standards
			National Board Certification
			Formal Assessment of Teachers
			School District Standards
		Preparing for Formal Teacher Assessments
			Formal Preparatory Programs and Assessments
			Challenges for New Teachers
			Teacher Self-Assessment
				Video Recording Your Teaching
				Peers and Mentors
				Student Feedback
				Student Classroom Assessments
				Standardized Assessments
				Teacher Portfolio
		Summary
	Appendix - 
No Child Left Behind Act
		Introduction
		Accountability
		Measuring Student Progress
		Myths and Realities about Testing
			Testing Myth: Testing suppresses teaching and learning.
			Testing Myth: Testing narrows the curriculum by rewarding test-taking skills.
			Testing Myth: Testing promotes “teaching to the test.”
			Testing Myth: Testing does not measure what a student should know.
			Testing Myth: Annual testing places too much emphasis on a single exam.
			Testing Myth: Testing discriminates against different styles of test takers.
			Testing Myth: Testing provides little helpful information and accomplishes nothing.
			Testing Myth: Testing hurts the poor and people of color.
			Testing Myth: Testing will increase dropout rates and create physical and emotional illness in children.
		Increased Flexibility and Local Control
		Expanded Options for Parents
			When are children eligible for school choice?
			How do parents know if their child is eligible for school choice?
			What action can parents take if their school or district does not offer school choice to their child who is eligible?
			Do public school options include only schools in the same district?
			Is transportation available for children who exercise their right to attend another school?
			What are supplemental educational services?
			When are children eligible to receive supplemental educational services?
			Are parents notified about supplemental educational services?
			Can parents choose providers for tutoring and other supplemental educational services?
			What action can parents take if their child is eligible for tutoring or other supplemental educational services, but their school or district does not offer them?
			How are providers of supplemental educational services held accountable?
		Teaching Methods Proven to Work
			Does No Child Left Behind do anything to prevent bad or untested programs from being used in the classroom?
			What is scientifically based research?
			How can parents find out about scientifically based research that applies to federal education programs, aside from the research on reading?
		Teachers
	Index