Handbook of Force Transducers: Characteristics and Applications

Foreword
Contents
Characteristics of Force Transducers
1 The International System of Units (SI) and the Place of “Force” in Several Graphic Representations
	1.1 Graphic Representations of the SI Units
		1.1.1 The “Tree” Representation
		1.1.2 The “Planetary” Representation
		1.1.3 The “Subway Map” Representation
	1.2 Some Thoughts Related to the “Force” as a Physical Quantity
	1.3 The Place of “Force” within the “New SI”
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
2 Metrological Technical Data in the Measurement Process, with Examples in Weighing Cells
	2.1 History and Terminology of Weighing
	2.2 Characteristics and Specifications Related to Weighing Cells
	2.3 Evolution of Mechanical and Electrical Weighing Systems
	2.4 Modern Achievements in the Fields of Load Cells and Force Transducers
	References
3 General Classification of the Electrical Methods and Principles for Measuring Mechanical Quantities
	3.1 Resistive Force Transducers [10−13 to 108 N]
	3.2 Inductive Force Transducers [10−2 to 105 N]
	3.3 Capacitive Force Transducers [10−9 to 104 N]
	3.4 Piezoelectric Force Transducers (PZFT) [10−1 to 109 N]
	3.5 Electromagnetic Force Transducers [10−14 to 100 N]
	3.6 Electrodynamic Force Transducers (EMFC) [10−2 to 103 N]
	3.7 Magnetoelastic Force Transducers [103 to 107 N]
	3.8 Galvanomagnetic Force Transducers (Hall-Effect) [10−12 to 100 N]
	3.9 Vibrating-Wire Force Transducers (VWFT) [10−1 to 107 N]
	3.10 (Micro)Resonator Force Transducers [10−13 to 105 N]
	3.11 Acoustic Force Transducers (SAW) [10−3 to 102 N]
	3.12 Gyroscopic Force Transducers [101 to 103 N]
	3.13 Comparison of Methods and Principles for Force Measuring
	References
4 Application of Electromagnetic and Optical Methods in Small Force Sensing
	4.1 Electromagnetic Methods Classification in Force Sensing
	4.2 Applications of Electromagnetic Methods in Small Force Sensing
		4.2.1 Magnetoresistive Sensing
		4.2.2 Magnetostrictive Sensing
		4.2.3 Galvanomagnetic (Hall-Effect) Sensing
		4.2.4 Electrodynamic (EMFC) Sensing
		4.2.5 Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)
		4.2.6 Microforce Sensor Based on Floating-Magnetic Principle
		4.2.7 Manipulation of Magnetic Skyrmions by Mechanical Force
	4.3 Perspectives in Small Force Measurements
	References
5 Strain Gauges—Resistive and Other Principles
	5.1 Resistive Strain Gauges
		5.1.1 Bonded Metallic Strain Gauges
		5.1.2 Piezoresistive (Silicon) Strain Gauges
		5.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
	5.2 Capacitive Strain Gauges
	5.3 Piezoelectric Strain Gauges
	5.4 Magnetoelastic Strain Gauges
	5.5 Acoustic Strain Gauges (SAWs)
	5.6 Optical Strain Gauges
	References
6 Wheatstone and Other Bridge-Like Configurations
	6.1 Resistive Wheatstone Bridge
		6.1.1 Wheatstone Bridge History
		6.1.2 Wheatstone Bridge Fundamental Properties
	6.2 Other Bridge-Like Measuring Devices
		6.2.1 Differential Transformer (LVDT)
		6.2.2 Differential Capacitor
		6.2.3 Magnetoresistive “Bridge”
		6.2.4 Galvanomagnetic Transducer (Hall-Effect)
		6.2.5 Magnetoelastic (Biparametric R–L Half-Bridge)
		6.2.6 Biparametric (L–C Half-Bridge)
	6.3 Instrumentation Applications Based on Wheatstone Bridges
	6.4 Signal Conditioning for Wheatstone Bridges
	References
7 Evolution of Strain Gauge Force Transducers—Design, Fabrication, Testing, Calibration and Databases
	7.1 Design Requirements of Strain Gauge Force Transducers
	7.2 Finite Elements Optimization of the Force Transducers Elastic Elements
	7.3 Aspects Concerning Testing and Calibration of Strain Gauge Force Transducers
	7.4 Scientific and Commercial Databases of Force Transducers
	References
Applications with Force Transducers
8 Testing Equipment to Investigate Elastic Constants of Rocks and Composites
	8.1 Equipment for Determining the Elastic Constants of Rocks
	8.2 Stand for Determining the Elasticity Modulus of Composite Materials
	8.3 Other NDT, Static and Dynamic Tests for Composites
	References
9 Static and Dynamic Stiffness in Connection with Ball Screws and Reinforced Concrete Components
	9.1 Stand for Determining the Static Stiffness and the Friction Moment at the Ball Screws
	9.2 Measurement of the Dynamic Stiffness of Some Reinforced Concrete Components
	References
10 Methods and Means for Measuring Cables Tension
	10.1 Testing Equipment for Determining the Cables Characteristics
	10.2 Automatic Measurement System for Ground Anchor Proof Testing
	References
11 Measurement of the Axial Loads Transmitted to the Foundation by High Voltage Circuit Breakers When Acting
	References
12 A New Weigh-in-Motion and Traffic Monitoring System
	12.1 Methods and Means for WIM
	12.2 WIM with Bending Bridges [8]
	12.3 WIM with Shear Bridges [9]
	12.4 Experimental Results
	References
13 Robotic and Biomedical Applications Related to Human Hands
	13.1 Human and Robotic Gripping
	13.2 Force Feedback for Human Hands
	13.3 Strain Gauge Devices for Handwriting Analysis
	13.4 Force Feedback, Data and Fuzzy Gloves
	13.5 Vision-Based Force Transducers for Microrobotic Applications
	References
14 Multifunctional Transducers for Force and Other Non-electrical Quantities
	14.1 Multifunctional Force Transducers
	14.2 Force and Deformation/Elongation
	14.3 Force and Strain
	14.4 Force and Pressure
	14.5 Force and Torque
	14.6 Force and Hardness
	14.7 Force and Acceleration
	14.8 Force and Mass
	14.9 Force, Density and Flow
	14.10 Force, Power and Energy
	14.11 Force and Environment
	14.12 Force and Frequency
	References
15 Multicomponent Force and Moment Transducers
	15.1 Classification and Representations of Multicomponent F-M Transducers
	15.2 F-M Applications with Two to Six Components
		15.2.1 Two Components
		15.2.2 Three Components
		15.2.3 Four Components
		15.2.4 Five Components
		15.2.5 Six Components
	15.3 Dynamic Testing of Multicomponent F-M Transducers
	15.4 Multicomponent F-M Transducers Calibration in the Old and the New SI
	References
16 Equipment for Determining Aerodynamic Forces on Flapping Wings
	16.1 Micromechanical Flying Control and Scaling Aspects
	16.2 Equipment for Measuring Aerodynamic Forces
	16.3 Experimental Results
	References
17 Strain Gauge Balances for Testing Car and Flight Models in Wind Tunnel Applications
	17.1 Classifications and Requirements for Strain Gauge Balances in Wind Tunnels
	17.2 Strain Gauge Balances for Subsonic Wind Tunnel
		17.2.1 Strain Gauge Balance with Wires
		17.2.2 Half Rigid Strain Gauge Balance
	17.3 Strain Gauge Balances for Trisonic Wind Tunnel
		17.3.1 Vertical External Strain Gauge Balance
		17.3.2 Strain Gauge Wall Balance for Half Model
		17.3.3 Six Component Internal Strain Gauge Balance
	17.4 Calibration of Strain Gauge Balances for Wind Tunnels
	References
18 Recent Evolution of Smart Force Transducers
	18.1 Smart and/or Intelligent
	18.2 Smart Circuits
	18.3 Smart Force Transducers
		18.3.1 Smart Vibrating Wire Force Transducers
		18.3.2 Smart Resistive Force Transducers
		18.3.3 Smart Optical Force Transducers
	18.4 Smart Imaging
	References
19 New Achievements in the Field of Intelligent Force Transducers. Traceability
	19.1 Intelligent Design of Force Transducers
	19.2 Intelligent Force Transducers
		19.2.1 Differential Piezoelectric Force Transducer
		19.2.2 Electro-Optical Catheter
	19.3 Intelligent Force Measurement Channels
	19.4 Intelligent Force Sensing Applications
		19.4.1 Intelligent Robots
		19.4.2 Wireless Force Sensing
	19.5 Force Measurement Traceability
	References
20 Virtual Instrumentation and Force Transducer for Measurements in Dentistry
	20.1 Virtual Instrumentation—Components and Characteristics
	20.2 Intelligent Design of Force Transducer and Experimental Setup
	20.3 Virtual Instrumentation for Measurements in Dentistry
	20.4 Experimental Results
	20.5 Conclusions
	References
21 A Supplement on Photoelastic and Digital Techniques in Force Measurements
Annex: Engineering and Art of Illustrated Travel Reports at the IMEKO World Congresses
Introduction
Coexistence of Engineering with Art Related to Scientific Traveling
Text Versus Pictures
Requirements Concerning Text
Secrets of Image Processing
Readers Impressions
Audio-Visual Presentation Means
Video-Memoirs About Author and His Illustrated Travel Book
Acknowledgements
References and Links