Opportunistic Networks: Fundamentals, Applications and Emerging Trends

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contributors
Chapter 1: Mobile-Code-Based Opportunistic Networking
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Motivation
		1.2.1 IP Multicast: A Case Example
	1.3 Scenario Description
	1.4 Active Messages
	1.5 General Protocol Architecture
	1.6 System Architecture Elements
	1.7 Security Considerations
	1.8 Reification
	1.9 Primitive Services Types and Task Delegation
	1.10 Dynamic Multi-Routing
	1.11 Aggregation, Scheduling, and Dropping
	1.12 Application Influenced Movement Model
	1.13 Active Messages: A Distributed Sensing Infrastructure
	References
Chapter 2: Opportunistic Emergency Scenarios: An Opportunistic Distributed Computing Approach
	2.1 An Opportunistic Approach for Mobile-Code-Based Distributed Computing
		2.1.1 Integrating DTN WSNs in Grid Computer Infrastructures Using Mobile Code
		2.1.2 Grid Job Management
		2.1.3 Store-Process-Carry-and-Forward Paradigm
		2.1.4 Processing Models
		2.1.5 Storage
		2.1.6 The Routing Issue
		2.1.7 Implementation
	2.2 Opportunistic Emergency Scenarios Applications
		2.2.1 Scenario Description
		2.2.2 Dynamic Routing and Routing Algorithm Deployment
		2.2.3 Alleviate DTN Congestion
		2.2.4 DTN Lifetime Control
		2.2.5 Dynamic Prioritized Scheduling
	Note
	References
Chapter 3: Reactive and Proactive Routing Strategies in Mobile Ad Hoc Network
	3.1 Introduction and Related Works
	3.2 State of the Routing Strategies with Mobility Models (MM)
		3.2.1 Protocols under Investigation
			3.2.1.1 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
			3.2.1.2 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
			3.2.1.3 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
		3.2.2 Mobility Models (MM)
			3.2.2.1 Random Walk (RW)
			3.2.2.2 Random Waypoint (RWP)
			3.2.2.3 Random Direction (RD)
	3.3 Methodology and Environment Setting
		3.3.1 Simulation Tool
		3.3.2 Random Traffic and Mobility Generation
		3.3.3 Running the NAM File and Data Sending
		3.3.4 Simulation Environment Setup
	3.4 Result and Discussion
		3.4.1 Evaluation Metrics
		3.4.2 Performance Analysis through Varying the Number of Nodes
		3.4.3 Performance Analysis through Varying the Packet Sizes
		3.4.4 Performance Analysis through Varying the Data Rates
		3.4.5 Performance Analysis through Varying the Speed of Nodes
	3.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 4: Secure Hierarchical Infrastructure-Based Privacy Preservation Authentication Scheme in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Related Works
	4.3 Background
		4.3.1 System Architecture of VANET
		4.3.2 Security Requirements in VANET
			4.3.2.1 Authentication
			4.3.2.2 Confidentiality
			4.3.2.3 Integrity
			4.3.2.4 Availability
			4.3.2.5 Non-repudiation
			4.3.2.6 Privacy Preserving
	4.4 Preliminaries
		4.4.1 Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
		4.4.2 Edwards-curve Digital Signature (EdDSA)
	4.5 Proposed Scheme
		4.5.1 Protocol Description
		4.5.2 Registration Phase
		4.5.3 Authentication and Communication between OBU i and RSU i
		4.5.4 Communication between Vehicles
		4.5.5 Revocation
	4.6 Security Analysis
		4.6.1 Analysis of Security Requirements
		4.6.2 Formal Verification
	4.7 Performance Evaluation
		4.7.1 Comparison of Security Performance
		4.7.2 Computation Overhead
	4.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: Simulation Tools for Opportunistic Networks: How to Set Up and Simulate the ONE Simulator
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Routing Protocols and Mobility Models
	5.3 Simulation Tools
		5.3.1 ONE Simulator
		5.3.2 NS-2
		5.3.3 OMNeT++
	5.4 How to Install and Run the ONE Simulator
	5.5 Default Settings in the ONE Simulator
	5.6 Simulation Configuration for the ONE Simulator
	5.7 Simulated Results and Discussion with Analysis
		5.7.1 Delivery Probability
		5.7.2 Average Latency
		5.7.3 Overhead Ratio
		5.7.4 Average Hop Count
		5.7.5 Average Buffer Time
	5.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 6: Understanding Influencers of Adaptive Social-Aware Opportunistic Forwarding
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Background and Related Work
		6.2.1 Context-Adaptive Forwarding in Mobile Opportunistic Networks
		6.2.2 EBubbleRap Algorithm
		6.2.3 PeopleRank Algorithm
		6.2.4 SCAR Algorithm
		6.2.5 PI-SOFA Framework
			6.2.5.1 PIPeROp Algorithm
			6.2.5.2 PISCAROp Algorithm
		6.2.6 Space Syntax
			6.2.6.1 Space Syntax Metrics
			6.2.6.2 Space Syntax-Based Forwarding Algorithms
	6.3 Adaptive Ranking
		6.3.1 Adaptive Ranking Framework
		6.3.2 Adaptive Ranking Versions
	6.4 Adaptation Proposed Implementations
		6.4.1 Version 1: Adp
		6.4.2 Version 2: AdpOp
		6.4.3 Version 3: AdpSyn
		6.4.4 Version 4: AdpSpSynOp
	6.5 Evaluation
		6.5.1 Simulation Environment
		6.5.2 Evaluation Metrics
			6.5.2.1 Effectiveness
			6.5.2.2 Efficiency
			6.5.2.3 Power Awareness
			6.5.2.4 Normalized Performance Indices
	6.6 Results
		6.6.1 Interest Awareness
			6.6.1.1 Effectiveness
			6.6.1.2 Efficiency
		6.6.2 Power Awareness
			6.6.2.1 Power Consumption Awareness
			6.6.2.2 Power Utilization Fairness
			6.6.2.3 Overhead of Exchanged Control Messages
		6.6.3 Normalized Performance Indices
			6.6.3.1 Effectiveness Performance Index
			6.6.3.2 Efficiency Performance Index
			6.6.3.3 Power Awareness Performance Index
		6.6.4 Eight-Metric Performance Comparison
	6.7 Discussion and Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 7: Performance Analysis of AODV and DSDV Routing Protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc Network Using OMNeT++
	7.1 Introduction and Related Works
	7.2 Manet Routing Protocols
		7.2.1 Proactive Routing Protocol
		7.2.2 Reactive Routing Protocol
		7.2.3 Hybrid Routing Protocol
	7.3 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV)
		7.3.1 Mechanism of the DSDV Routing Protocol
		7.3.2 Advantages of the DSDV Protocol
		7.3.3 Limitations of the DSDV Protocol
	7.4 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
		7.4.1 Mechanism of the AODV Routing Protocol
		7.4.2 Key Features of AODV
		7.4.3 Advantages of the AODV Routing Protocol
		7.4.4 Limitations of the AODV Routing Protocol
	7.5 Simulation Methodology
		7.5.1 Mechanism of OMNeT++
		7.5.2 Simulation Parameters
	7.6 Result and Discussion
		7.6.1 Performance Metrics
		7.6.2 Performance Evaluation
			7.6.2.1 Impact of Changing the Number of Nodes
			7.6.2.2 Impact of Changing the Speed of Nodes
			7.6.2.3 Impact of Changing the Packet Length
	7.7 Conclusion and Future Work
	References
Chapter 8: Message Forwarding and Relay Selection Strategies in Mobile Opportunistic Networks
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Message Forwarding/Routing
		8.2.1 Background
		8.2.2 Classical Routing Protocols
			8.2.2.1 Epidemic
			8.2.2.2 PRoPHET
			8.2.2.3 Spray and Wait
			8.2.2.4 Bubble Rap
	8.3 Encounter- and Contact-Based Routing
		8.3.1 Study on Real-Life Traces
			8.3.1.1 Periodicity/Pattern between Node Pairs
		8.3.2 Relay Selection
		8.3.3 Proposed Routing with Relay Selection
			8.3.3.1 Link Definitions on Regular and Sporadic Links
			8.3.3.2 RSCR: Scheme Design
		8.3.4 Performance Results
			8.3.4.1 Simulation Settings
			8.3.4.2 Results and Discussion
	8.4 Summary and Future Directions
	References
Chapter 9: Routing Techniques for Opportunistic Network
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Classification of Routing Algorithms
		9.2.1 Context-Oblivious Approach
		9.2.2 Context-Aware Approach
	9.3 Factors Affecting Routing Protocol Performance
	9.4 QoS Constraints of MONs
	9.5 ONE Simulator-Based Performance Evaluation of Routing Algorithms
		9.5.1 Case Study: Comparison of Average Latency
		9.5.2 Analysis of the Routing Algorithms in View of Open Issues
	9.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Blockchain Leveraged Node Incentivization in Cooperation-Based Delay Tolerant Networks
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Literature Review
	10.3 Rudimentary Elements of Blockchain
		10.3.1 Blocks
		10.3.2 Transaction
		10.3.3 Mining
		10.3.4 Ethereum and Smart Contracts
	10.4 Integration of Blockchain with DTNs
	10.5 System Model
		10.5.1 Network Architecture
		10.5.2 Security Model
	10.6 BlockCent: Blockchain-Based Node Incentivizing Scheme
		10.6.1 Setup Phase
		10.6.2 Incentivizing Process
			10.6.2.1 Transaction Creation
			10.6.2.2 Message Transmission
			10.6.2.3 Incentive Redemption
		10.6.3 Reward Model
	10.7 Security Analysis
		10.7.1 Shelter Node Refuses to Pay Back
		10.7.2 Forwarder Node Refuses to Forward Message
		10.7.3 Forwarder Node Refuses to Send ACK
		10.7.4 Observer Node Poses as Forwarder Node
	10.8 Experimental Results
		10.8.1 Simulation Environment
		10.8.2 Simulation Setup
			10.8.2.1 ONE Setup
			10.8.2.2 Ethereum Setup
		10.8.3 Simulation Metrics
			10.8.3.1 Design Metrics
			10.8.3.2 Network Performance Metrics
			10.8.3.3 Blockchain Metrics
		10.8.4 Results and Discussion
			10.8.4.1 Achieving Major Design Goals
			10.8.4.2 Evaluation of Network Performance
			10.8.4.3 Overheads Introduced for Blockchain Activities
	10.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Evaluation of Energy Efficiency of Opportunistic Network Routing Protocols
	11.1 Introduction and Related Works
	11.2 Routing Protocols for OppNet
		11.2.1 Replication-Based Protocols
			11.2.1.1 Epidemic
			11.2.1.2 Spray and Wait
			11.2.1.3 Spray and Focus
		11.2.2 Probabilistic Protocols
			11.2.2.1 PRoPHET
		11.2.3 Social-Based Protocols
			11.2.3.1 Bubble Rap
			11.2.3.2 SCORP
			11.2.3.3 dLife
			11.2.3.4 dLifeComm
	11.3 Simulation Environments
		11.3.1 Simulation Tool
		11.3.2 Simulation Scenario Settings
	11.4 Performance Metrics
		11.4.1 Average Remaining Energy
		11.4.2 Delivery Ratio
		11.4.3 Average Latency
		11.4.4 Overhead Ratio
	11.5 Results and Discussion
		11.5.1 Impact of Node Density
		11.5.2 Impact of TTL
	11.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 12: Mobility Models in Opportunistic Networks
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Trace-Based Model
		12.2.1 Trace-Based Analysis
	12.3 Stochastic Mobility Model
		12.3.1 Random-Based Mobility Models
			12.3.1.1 Random Walk Model
			12.3.1.2 Random Direction Model
			12.3.1.3 Random Waypoint Model
	12.4 Synthetic Models
		12.4.1 Temporal Dependency-Based Mobility Models
		12.4.2 Spatial Dependency-Based Mobility Models
	12.5 Geographical Restriction-Based Mobility Model
		12.5.1 Pathway Mobility Model
		12.5.2 Obstacle Mobility Model
		12.5.3 Manhattan Mobility Model
		12.5.4 City Segment Model
	12.6 Map-Based Mobility Models
		12.6.1 Route-Based Map Mobility Model
		12.6.2 Rush Hour (Human) Traffic Model
		12.6.3 Working Day Movement Model
		12.6.4 Shortest Path Map-Based Movement Model
		12.6.5 Social Network-Based Mobility Models
		12.6.6 Community-Based Mobility Models
		12.6.7 Social Network Models
	12.7 Simulation Analysis
		12.7.1 Testing Tool
		12.7.2 Simulation Results
	12.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13: Opportunistic Routing in Mobile Networks
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs)
		13.1.2 Extremely Opportunistic Routing
	13.2 Related Work and Motivation
		13.2.1 Recent Work Related to Opportunistic Data Forwarding
			13.2.1.1 Protocols Based on Opportunistic Data Forwarding
				13.2.1.1.1 Multiple Handshake
				13.2.1.1.2 Route-Prioritized Contention
			13.2.1.2 Other Variants of Opportunistic Forwarding
				13.2.1.2.1 Network Types
				13.2.1.2.2 Metrics
				13.2.1.2.3 Network Coding-Based Opportunistic Forwarding
				13.2.1.2.4 Position-Based Opportunistic Forwarding
			13.2.1.3 Scenarios Suitable for Opportunistic Forwarding
			13.2.1.4 Performance Modeling for Opportunistic Forwarding
				13.2.1.4.1 Performance Optimization
				13.2.1.4.2 Modeling from Markov Process and Game Theory
		13.2.2 Routing Algorithms Review for Opportunistic Data Forwarding in MANETs
			13.2.2.1 Timing Strategy in Routing Protocols
			13.2.2.2 Fundamental Algorithms – Link State and Distance Vector
			13.2.2.3 Tree-Based Routing Protocols Derived from the Internet
			13.2.2.4 Suitability of Existing Routing Protocols for Opportunistic Data Forwarding in MANETs
		13.2.3 Motivation and Framework
			13.2.3.1 Objectives and Challenges
			13.2.3.2 CORMAN Fundamentals
	13.3 Proactive Source Routing – PSR
		13.3.1 Design of PSR
			13.3.1.1 Route Update
			13.3.1.2 Neighborhood Trimming
			13.3.1.3 Streamlined Differential Update
		13.3.2 Implementation
			13.3.2.1 Routing and Neighborhood Update Algorithm
			13.3.2.2 Algorithms for Transformation of Tree Structures
			13.3.2.3 Implementation of Reconstruction in Differential Update
	13.4 Large-Scale Routing Update and Small-Scale Retransmission
		13.4.1 Large-Scale Live Update
		13.4.2 Small-Scale Retransmission
			13.4.2.1 Considerations of Small-Scale Retransmission
			13.4.2.2 Design of Small-Scale Retransmission
			13.4.2.3 Algorithm and Scoring Function
	13.5 Performance Evaluation
		13.5.1 Performance Study of PSR
			13.5.1.1 Experiment Settings
			13.5.1.2 TCP with Node Density
			13.5.1.3 TCP with Velocity
			13.5.1.4 UDP with Density
			13.5.1.5 UDP with Velocity
		13.5.2 Effectiveness Study of Small-Scale Retransmission
			13.5.2.1 Experiment Settings
			13.5.2.2 Performance versus Network Dimension
			13.5.2.3 Performance versus Velocity
		13.5.3 Overall Performance of CORMAN
			13.5.3.1 Experiment Settings
			13.5.3.2 Performance versus Network Dimension
			13.5.3.3 Performance versus Velocity
	13.6 Concluding Remarks
		13.6.1 Conclusions
		13.6.2 Discussion
			13.6.2.1 Proactive Source Routing Related
			13.6.2.2 About Large-Scale Live Update and Small-Scale Retransmission
		13.6.3 Future Work
	References
Chapter 14: Security in Opportunistic Networks
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Characteristics of Opportunistic Networks
	14.3 Issues in Opportunistic Networks
	14.4 Security Issues in Opportunistic Networks
	14.5 Thrust Areas of Security
	14.6 Security Architecture for Opportunistic Networks
	14.7 Security Attacks and Their Defense Mechanisms
	14.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Notes
	References
Index